Processes for electrically activated transformation of chemical and material compositions

ABSTRACT

Illustrations are provided on applications and usage of electrically activated catalysts. Methods are disclosed for preparing catalysts from nanomaterials. Processes and devices are described that utilize catalysts. The invention can also be applied to improve the performance of existing catalysts, to enhance the performance of substances by inducing or applying charge in nanostructured forms of substances, and to prepare novel devices. Example processes for hydrogen production are discussed. Finally, the invention can be utilized to engineer the thermal, structural, electrical, magnetic, electrochemical, optical, photonic, and other properties of nanoscale substances.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

1. This application claims benefit and priority of commonly assignedU.S. Provisional Application No. 60/161,098 filed on Oct. 22, 2000 andis a continuation-in-part of and claims benefit and priority of commonlyassigned U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/165,439 titled “A METHODAND DEVICE FOR TRANSFORMING CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONS” filed Oct. 2, 1998,which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No.60/100,269 filed Sep. 14, 1998, the specifications of which areincorporated herein by reference.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

2. 1. Field of the Invention

3. The present invention relates, in general, products and processesresulting from catalytic processing, and, more particularly, from amethod and apparatus for enhanced catalytic processing using catalystcompositions in an electric field.

4. 2. Relevant Background.

5. Chemical and materials synthesis and transformation is one of thecore industries of world economy. Numerous substances are synthesizedusing processes that require non-ambient temperatures and/or non-ambientpressures that require capital intensive equipment. Methods that canproduce useful chemicals and materials at conditions closer to ambientconditions and use simple equipment are economically, ecologically, andenvironmentally more desirable.

6. Chemical species such as volatile organic chemicals (VOCs), heavymetals in waste water and bioactive chemicals are pollutants of seriousconcern. A need exists for processes and devices that can convert thesesubstances into more benign forms such as carbon dioxide and watervapor. Techniques currently in use include incineration,absorption/desorption, chemical wash and photocatalysis. Incineration isa high energy process and often leads to non-benign secondary emissionssuch as nitrogen oxides (NOx) and unburned hydrocarbons. Photocatalysissystems are expensive to install and require high maintenance to avoiddegrading efficiencies and treatment reliability. Other techniques leadto secondary wastes and leave the ultimate fate of the pollutantsunresolved. A technique is needed that can reliably treat chemicalpollutants in a cost effective manner.

7. Numerous industries use catalytic processing techniques either toproduce useful materials and compositions or to reduce waste orpollutants. Examples of such industries include those based onelectricity generation, turbines, internal combustion engines,environmental and ecological protection, polymer and plasticsmanufacturing, petrochemical synthesis, specialty chemicalsmanufacturing, fuel production, batteries, biomedical devices, andpharmaceutical production. These industries are in continuous need ofnew catalysts and catalytic processes that can impact the costs andperformance of the products generated by these industries.

8. Currently, processes and methods based on homogeneous andheterogeneous catalysis are integral and important to modern industrial,energy, and environmental chemistry. In petroleum and petrochemicalindustries, catalysis is used in numerous purification, refining,cracking, and/or reaction steps. In the purification of syntheticgaseous and liquid fuels from crude oil, coal, tar sand, and oil shale,catalysis is important. Approximately two thirds of leading the largetonnage chemicals are manufactured with the help of catalysis.Illustrative examples include acetic acid, acetaldehyde, acetone,acryolonitrile, adipic acid, ammonia, aniline, benzene, bisphenol A,butadiene, butanols, butanone, caprolactum, cumene, cyclohexane,cyclohexanone, cyclohexanol, phtalates, dodecylbenzene, ethanol, ethers,ethylbenzene, ethanol, methanol, ethylbenzene, ethylene dichloride,ethylene glycol, ethylene oxide, ethyl chloride, ethyl hexanol,formaldehyde, hydrogen, hydrogen peroxide, hydroxylamine, isoprene,isopropanol, maleic anhydride, methyl amines, methyl chloride, methylenechloride, nitric acid, perchloroethylene, phenol, phthalic anhydride,propylene glycol, propylene oxide, styrene, sulfur, sulfuric acid,acids, alkalis, terephthalic acid, toluene, vinyl acetate, vinylchloride, and xylenes.

9. Further, most of the production of organic intermediates used to makeplastics, elastomers, fibers, pharmaceuticals, dyes, pesticides, resins,and pigments involve catalytic process steps. Food, drinks, clothing,metals, and materials manufacturing often utilizes catalysts. Removal ofatmospheric pollutants from automobile exhausts and industrial wastegases requires catalytic converters. Liquid wastes and stream also areroutinely treated with catalysts. These applications need techniques,methods, and devices that can help research, identify, develop,optimize, improve, and practice superior performing catalysts ofexisting formulations, of evolved formulations, and of novelformulations.

10. Many new products are impractical to produce due to highmanufacturing costs and/or low manufacturing yields of the materialsthat enable the production of such products. These limitations curtailthe wide application of new materials. Novel catalysts can enable theproduction of products that are currently too expensive to manufactureor impossible to produce for wide ranges of applications that were,until now, cost prohibitive. A need exists for techniques to developsuch novel catalysts.

11. The above and other limitations are solved by a chemicaltransformation device and method for processing chemical compositionsthat provides efficient, robust operation yet is implemented with asimplicity of design that enables low cost implementation in a widevariety of applications. These and other limitations are also solved bya method for making a chemical transformation device using costefficient processes and techniques.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

12. In one aspect, the invention includes processes and products using amethod of chemically transforming a substance through the simultaneoususe of a catalyst and electrical current. This method comprisesselecting an active material which interacts with an appliedelectromagnetic field to produce a current. A high surface area(preferably greater than 1 square centimeter per gram, more preferably100 square centimeter per gram, and most preferably 1 square meter pergram) form of the active material is prepared. The active material isformed into a single layer or multilayered structure that is preferablyporous. The stream containing substance that needs to be transformed isexposed to the active material structure while charge flow is induced bythe applied electromagnetic field. Where appropriate, the product streamis collected after such exposure.

13. In a related aspect, the invention comprises a method ofmanufacturing a device comprising an active material preferably withhigh band gap (preferably greater than 0.5 eV, more preferably 1.5 eV,most preferably 2.5 eV). The active material is preferably provided ahigh surface area form such as a nanostructured material or ananocomposite or a high internal porosity material. A porous structurecomprising at least one layer, such as a thin film layer, of the activematerial and electrodes positioned on the at least one layer to enablean electromagnetic field to be applied across the at least one layer. Itis preferred that the resistance of the device between the electrodes bebetween 0.001 milliohm to 100 megaohm per unit ampere of current flowingthrough the device, more preferably between 0.01 milliohm to 10 megaohmper unit ampere of current flowing through the device, and mostpreferably 1 milliohm to 1 megaohm per unit ampere of current flowingthrough the device.

14. In case the current flow measure is not known or difficult tomeasure, it is preferred that the corresponding power consumption levelsfor the device be used to practice this invention. To illustrate, incase of electromagnetic field is externally applied, then it ispreferred that the power consumption due to device operation be between0.001 milliwatt to 100 megawatt. While miniature, thin film, andmicromachined devices may utilize power less than these and applicationsmay use power higher than these levels, and such applications areherewith included in the scope of this invention, in all cases, designand/or operation that leads to lower power requirement is favored tominimize the operating costs by the device. Higher resistances may beused when the chemical transformation step so requires. In case,alternating current is used, the overall impedance of the device must bekept low to reduce energy consumption and operating costs. Once again,the yield, the selectivity, the operating costs and the capital costs ofthe device must be considered in designing, selecting, and operating thedevice.

15. Previous studies have used electrochemical and electrolytictechniques for converting certain species into more desirable species.As an illustration, a voltage when applied across a solid electrolyte(for example an ion conducting membrane) have been reported to causereversible increases in catalytic activity and changes in selectivity ofmetals supported on the electrolyte. These results have been explainedusing the non-Faradaic electrochemical modification of catalyticactivity (NEMCA) effect. The present invention is distinct from thesestudies in at least the following ways:

16. (1) an electromagnetic field (e.g. voltage) is applied to thecatalyst itself, as opposed to an electrolyte, using an external circuitand this causes the current to flow in the catalyst;

17. (2) reversing the polarity of the electrodes to the catalyst doesnot change the reaction kinetics or selectivity. Alternativelyalternating, sinusoidal, or other types of pulsating currents may beused for embodiments taught herein whereas

18. (3) current is not needed all the times and may just be used toactivate the catalyst in desirable ways, and

19. (4) reaction takes place on the low impedance catalyst which may besupported by a porous and relatively higher impedance substrate, whileelectrical current passes through the catalyst. In contrast, for NEMCAeffect the substrate (electrolyte) is necessarily conducting.

20. In another aspect, the present invention provides methods toefficiently provide localized thermal or activation energy at thesurface of a catalyst. Additionally, the present invention offers amethod of reducing or preventing the need for external thermal energyinput.

21. In another aspect the present invention provides processes thatproduce superior performing and environmentally benign manufacturing ofproducts through the quench of undesired secondary reactions.

22. In a related aspect the present invention provides process ofdeveloping catalysts and products derived using these catalysts.

23. In another aspect, the present invention provides a process ofproducing useful products from raw materials through the simultaneoususe of a catalytic surface that stationary with respect to the rawmaterial being processed and an induced field inside the catalyst.

24. In yet another aspect, the present invention provides methods forthe preparation of a device for chemically transforming a speciesthrough the use of electromagnetic field. Additionally, the presentinvention describes products prepared using such devices for chemicallytransforming a species with electromagnetic field. In another aspect,the present invention describes applications of novel fluid and chemicalcomposition transformation technique.

METHOD OF OPERATION

25. An exemplary process in accordance with the present invention isoperated by first pre-treating a feed composition in a way that changesthe free energy of the feed composition to a more desirable state. Toillustrate, but not limit, the feed composition may be heated or cooled,pressurized or depressurized, mixed, sparged, evaporated partially orfully, filtered, decanted, crushed into finer particle sizes,emulsified, bio-activated, partially or fully combusted, or separatedinto desired chemistry using any technique.

26. Optionally, the pre-treated feed is then either combined withsimilarly pre-treated feed or untreated feed. The component feeds (i.e.,pre-treated feed(s) and untreated feed(s) are preferably thoroughlymixed, but may be mixed to any desired degree. The combination ratiosbetween component feed compositions can be varied widely to meet theneeds of a particular application. The resultant feed is then passedover a device comprising of an active material.

27. The device is operated by placing the active material in a directcurrent or alternating current electrical circuit that leads to flow ofcharge. The charge flow can be through flow of electrons, flow of ions,or flow of holes. In one embodiment, it is preferred that duringoperation, the circuit be switched on first such that charges begin toflow in the circuit. Next, feed material is exposed to the activematerial for duration desired and the products resulting from suchexposure are collected. In another embodiment it is preferred that thefeed material be in contact with the active material catalyst first,next the flow of charge is initiated by switching on the electricalcircuit. In yet another embodiment, the circuit is switched on to induceflow of charge that initiates the desired reaction which is thenfollowed by changing the electromagnetic field that best favors theperformance of the catalyst, the yield, the selectivity, the operatingcosts and the capital costs of the device. In another embodiment, thecircuit is operating in a time varying or pulsating or pre-programmedswitching on and off of the electrical circuit to induce correspondingflow of charge through the active material.

28. In one or more embodiments, the device may be cooled or heated usingsecondary sources, pressurized or evacuated using secondary sources,photonically and optically activated or isolated using secondarysources, laser activated or field influenced using secondary sources,gas, liquid, solid, ion, or energy influenced using secondary sources.The device may be heated or cooled to desired temperature throughresistive or convective or radiative heating for illustration,pressurized or evacuated to desired pressure through piezo effects forillustration, photonically and optically activated to desired photonicinfluence through phosphorescence affects for illustration. The devicemay assist such functions by design through the use of the electricalcurrent directly, i.e. the current affects the catalyst and also enablessuch desired state variables. The device may be free standing or fullysupported or partially supported. The device may be operated in steadystate, unsteady state, pulsed mode, continuous or batch mode, symmetricwaveforms, asymmetric waveforms, in motion or in stationary state. Theproducts from the device are then removed from the neighborhood of thedevice, collected, and distributed.

29. In some embodiments, the heating or cooling from the device or unitoperations described in this invention may be usefully applied. Toillustrate, if the device is being cooled, the heat so extracted may beused to heat another process stream or a space such as the passengercabin of a car or home.

30. In another embodiment, the catalytic properties of a substance aremodified because of the electromagnetic potential applied to thesubstance. In such cases, the potential may be applied by an externalcircuit containing the substance, or the potential may be applied duethe presence of another substance which induces a potential because ofproximity and difference in chemical potential between the substances.To illustrate the later but not limit, if cobalt nanoparticles were tobe intimately mixed with gold nanoparticles, the difference in thechemical potential would induce a charge in the nanoparticles. Thischarge would induce cobalt interfacial atoms of the cobalt nanoparticlesto exhibit nickel like catalytic behavior and gold interfacial atoms ofthe gold nanoparticles to exhibit platinum like catalytic behavior.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

31.FIG. 1 shows a schematic view of a mechanism implementing a processin accordance with the present invention;

32.FIG. 2 shows a schematic view of a preferred alternative chemicaltransformation device in accordance with the present invention;

33.FIG. 3 shows a flow diagram of major steps in a process in accordancewith the present invention;

34.FIG. 4 shows a schematic view of a chemical transformation reactor inaccordance with the present invention;

35.FIG. 5A and FIG. 5B illustrate an integrated device implementation inaccordance with the present invention;

36.FIG. 6A shows a side view of an alternative embodiment structure fora chemical transformation device in accordance with the presentinvention;

37.FIG. 6B shows a plan view of the embodiment shown in FIG. 6A;

38.FIG. 7A and FIG. 7B illustrate further alternative embodimentstructures for chemical transformation device in accordance with thepresent invention;

39.FIG. 8 illustrates in another alternative embodiment of a reactor inaccordance with the present invention;

40.FIG. 9 shows in block diagram form a process in accordance with thepresent invention; and

41.FIG. 10A and FIG. 10B show an exemplary support structure inaccordance with one embodiment of the present invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

42. The present invention involves all phases of catalytic processingincluding devices for performing catalytic processing, methods of makingdevices for catalytic processing, and methods for operating devices toperform catalytic processing. The present invention is described interms of several specific examples but it is readily appreciated thatthe present invention can be modified in a predictable manner to meetthe needs of a particular application. Except as otherwise noted herein,the specific examples shown herein are not limitations on the basicteachings of the present invention but are instead merely illustrativeexamples that aid understanding.

43. Specific examples in this specification involve application of highsurface area catalysts on porous structures such as, but not limiting tohoneycomb structured substrates. This technique in accordance with thepresent invention reduces the thermal mass of the catalytic systemcomprising the catalyst and its supporting structure. It has been foundthat catalytic behavior is significantly enhanced by procedures andstructures that reduce the system's thermal mass while increasingsurface area of the catalyst. The specification suggests reasons why thevarious examples behave in the manner observed, however, theseexplanations provided to improve understanding are not to be construedas limitations on the teachings of the present invention.

44. The present invention is described using terms of defined below:

45. “Catalysis,” as the term used herein, is the acceleration of anyphysical or chemical or biological reaction by a small quantity of asubstance-herein referred to as “catalyst”-the amount and nature ofwhich remain essentially unchanged during the reaction. Alternatively,the term, includes applications where the catalyst can be regenerated orits nature essentially restored after the reaction by any suitable meanssuch as but not limiting to heating, pressure, oxidation, reduction, andmicrobial action. For teachings contained herein, a raw material isconsidered catalyzed by a substance into a product if the substance is acatalyst for one or more intermediate steps of associated physical orchemical or biological reaction.

46. “Chemical transformation,” as the term used herein, is therearrangement, change, addition, or removal of chemical bonds in anysubstance or substances such as but not limiting to compounds,chemicals, materials, fuels, pollutants, biomaterials, biochemicals, andbiologically active species. The terms also includes bonds that some inthe art prefer to not call as chemical bonds such as but not limiting toVan der Waals bonds and hydrogen bonds.

47. “Nanomaterials,” as the term is used herein, are substances having adomain size of less than 250 nm, preferably less than 100 nm, oralternatively, having a domain size sufficiently small that a selectedmaterial property is substantially different (e.g., different in kind ormagnitude) from that of a micron-scale material of the same compositiondue to size confinement effects. For example, a property may differ byabout 20% or more from the same property for an analogous micron-scalematerial. In case the domain size is difficult to measure or difficultto define such as in porous networks, this term used herein refers tosubstances that have interface area greater than 1 square centimeter pergram of the substance. The ratio of the maximum domain dimension tominimum domain dimension in the catalyst for this invention is greaterthan or equal to 1. The term nanomaterials includes nanopowders,nanoparticles, nanofilms, nanofibers, quantum dots, and thenanomaterials may be coated, partially coated, fully coated, island,uncoated, hollow, porous, and dense domains. Furthermore, nanomaterialsmay be produced by any method to practice this invention.

48. “Domain size,” as the term is used herein, is the minimum dimensionof a particular material morphology. The domain size of a powder is thegrain size. The domain size of a whisker or fiber is the diameter, andthe domain size of a film or plate is the thickness.

49. “Confinement size” of a material, as the term is used herein inreference to a fundamental or derived property of interest, is the meandomain size below which the property becomes a function of the domainsize in the material.

50. “Activity” of a catalyst, as the term used herein, is a measure ofthe rate of conversion of the starting material by the catalyst.

51. “Selectivity” of a catalyst, as the term used herein, is a measureof the relative rate of formation of each product from two or morecompeting reactions. Often, selectivity of a specific product is ofinterest, though multiple products may interest some applications.

52. “Stability” of a catalyst, as the term used herein, is a measure ofthe catalyst's ability to retain useful life, activity and selectivityabove predetermined levels in presence of factors that can causechemical, thermal, or mechanical degradation or decomposition.Illustrative, but not limiting, factors include coking, poisoning,oxidation, reduction, thermal run away, expansion-contraction, flow,handling, and charging of catalyst.

53. “Porous” as used herein means a structure with sufficientinterstitial space to allow transport of reactant and product materialswithin the structure to expose the reactant materials to the constituentcompositions making up the porous structure.

54. “Electrically activated catalysis,” as the term is used herein,means providing a quantity of a catalyst, exposing a feed substance tothe quantity of catalyst, inducing or providing a flow of charge insidethe quantity of catalyst by applying an electromagnetic field across thecatalyst during the exposure to a feed stream for a period sufficient toinitiate a desired tranformation in the feed substance.

55. “Electrically activated catalyst,” as the term is used herein, isthe catalyst used in electrically activated catalysis.

56.FIG. 1 illustrates an embodiment of the present invention in a basicform. Essentially, feed material or waste material is, if needed,pre-treated using a subsystem consisting of one or more unit operationssuch as those identified in 103. These include, for example, heatexchangers, distillation, extraction, condensation, crystallization,filtration, drying, membrane pumps, compressors, separation, expandersand turbines that function to modify the physical, chemical and/orelectrical state of the raw materials using available processingtechniques.

57. The pretreated feed is then processed through one or more catalyticdevice(s) 101 within reactor network 104 where desirable transformationsoccur. The product from reactor network 104 is, if desired, post-treatedusing a subsystem consisting of one or more unit operations such asthose identified in 105. In an alternative shown in FIG. 1B, catalyticdevice 101 is placed in contact with a gaseous, liquid, solid, or mixedphase feed 107 and the desirable transformation(s) occur. The catalyticdevice 101 is coupled across a source of electromagnetic energy 106 byconductive electrodes 102. The feed composition is contained in anappropriate container, and the catalytic device is arranged within thecontainer to contact the gaseous form of the feed 107 as shown in FIG.1B, or may be submerged or enveloped in a solid or mixed-phase form orthe feed 107 with straightforward modifications.

58.FIG. 2 illustrates the catalytic device in an embodiment of thepresent invention in a basic form. Essentially, an active layer 201 issandwiched between two electrodes 202. Active layer 201 comprises amaterial that either as applied or as later modified by postprocessingacts as a catalyst for to convert a particular feed composition into adesired product composition. The dimensions and geometry of active layer201 are selected to provide both sufficient exposure to a feedcomposition (i.e., a composition that is to be catalyzed) and to allowan impeded current flow between electrodes 202 when an electromagneticfield is applied across electrodes 202.

59. Although specific examples of materials suitable for active layer201 are set out below, active layer 201 more generally comprises amaterial that is an active catalyst for a desired reaction whenactivated by an applied electric field. The properties of active layer201 are selected to allow active layer 201 to both support an electricfield and conduct current. It is not necessary that active layer 201 beactive as a catalyst at ambient conditions (e.g., without appliedelectromagnetic field). However, in some embodiments, the active layer201 may have catalytic activity in ambient or non-ambient conditionseven when an electric field is not applied between electrodes 202.

60. A method for preparing a chemical composition transformation devicein accordance with the present invention involves selecting an activematerial comprising a surface that physically, chemically, orbiologically interacts with the substance that is desired to betransformed or with one of the intermediates of such substance. Theactive material is preferably prepared in a high surface area form(i.e., a form that exhibits a surface area of preferably greater than 1square centimeter per gram, more preferably 100 square centimeter pergram, and most preferably 1 square meter per gram). It is believed thatthe present invention is enhanced by the interaction between the surfacearea of particles making up the active layer 201 and the appliedelectromagnetic field. Accordingly, a higher surface area form tends toincrease desirable catalytic behavior for a given quantity of material.

61. By way of explanation, the inventors have noted that electromagneticfields in the form of voltage and/or current gradients across ananostructured material manifest markedly different effects as comparedto fields of similar magnitude applied across materials with largerparticle size. In conventional devices, materials exist either in anatomic state or in a bulk state. Larger particle sizes (e.g., particleslarger than the critical domain size of the material) behave as bulkmaterials under exposure to electromagnetic fields. While an explanationof these unexpected effects is beyond the scope of this specification,it is contemplated that the interaction of particle sizes less than thecritical domain sizes of a material result in surprisingly unusualinteraction between particles and/or creation of an electronic state ata nanoscopic level that differs from either the materials in atomic formor the materials in bulk form.

62.FIG. 3 illustrates basic steps in an exemplary process formanufacturing a catalytic device in accordance with the presentinvention. The active material, usually prepared as a powder or powdermixture in step 301 and then optionally blended with additionalcompositions to form a slurry, ink or paste for screen printing in step303. In step 305 the active material is directly or alternatively formedinto a film, pellet, or multilayer structure comprising the activematerial. The film, pellet, or multilayer structure may be prepared asfree standing or on a substrate. In case of multilayer structure,dielectric or ferromagnetic layers may be utilized to modify or induce afield in the active layers.

63. The active layer structure may be porous or the structure may benon-porous. It is preferred that the device be porous to reduce pressuredrop and enhance contact of the active element with the chemical speciesof interest. Table 1 lists some catalysts and pore size ranges toillustrate but not limit the scope: TABLE 1 Catalyst Types and PoreSizes Average Pore Radius (1) Catalyst (Å) Activated carbons 10-20Silica gels 15-100 Silica-alumina cracking 15-150 catalysts ˜ 10-20%Al₂O₃ Silica-alumina (steam 155 deactivated) Silica-magnesiamicrosphere: 14.3 Nalco, 25% MgO Da-5 silica-magnesia 11.1 Activatedclays ˜100 TCC clay pellets (MgO, CaO, 26.3 Fe₂O₃, SO₄) = ˜10% Clays:Montmorrillonite (heated 25.2 550° C.) ˜314 Vermiculite Activatedalumina (Alorico) 45 CoMo on alumina 20-40 Kieselguhr (Celite 296)11,000 Fe-synthetic NH₃ catalyst 200-1000 Co—ThO₂-Kieselguhr 100:18:100(reduced) pellets 345 Co—ThO₂—MgO (100:6:12) 190 (reduced) granularCo-Kieselguhr 100:200 2030 (reduced) granular Porous plate (Coors No.2150 760), Pumice, Fused Copper Catalyst, Ni Film, Ni on Pumice

64. In other embodiments, the structure may be smooth or wavy, flexibleor rigid, homogeneous or heterogeneous, undoped or doped, flat orcylindrical or any other shape and form, nanostructured ornon-nanostructured. In all cases, this invention prefers that thematerial compositions chosen be physically robust in presence of allspecies in its environment in particular and all environmental variablesin general for a duration equal to or greater than the desired life forthe device. In all cases, this invention requires that the materialselected has a finite impedance in the presence of electromagneticfield.

65. Once a suitable material composition has been selected for use inthe chemical composition transformation device, in one embodiment,namely the formation of a chemical composition transformation device, adisc or body or single active layer laminated stack structure is formed,or in another embodiment a multilayer structure (as shown in FIG. 2) isformed in step 305 from the selected active material.

66. The active material layer formed in step 305 or structure or deviceform can be formed by any method or combination of methods, includingbut not limited to spin coating, dip coating, surface coating a porousstructure, powder pressing, casting, screen printing, tape forming,precipitation, sol-gel forming, curtain deposition, physical sputtering,reactive sputtering, physical vapor deposition, chemical vapordeposition, ion beam, e-beam deposition, molecular beam epitaxy, laserdeposition, plasma deposition, electrophoretic deposition,magnetophoretic deposition, thermophoretic deposition, stamping, coldpressing, hot pressing, explosion, pressing with an additive and thenremoval of the additive by heat or solvents or supercritical fluids,physical or chemical routes, centrifugal casting, gel casting,investment casting, extrusion, electrochemical or electrolytic orelectroless deposition, screen-stencil printing, stacking andlaminating, brush painting, self-assembly, forming with biologicalprocesses, or a combination of one or more of the above-mentionedmethods.

67. The active material can be in film form or dispersed particle formor bulk form or wire form. The cross section area of the active materialstructure can be few microns square to thousands of meters squaredepending on the needs of the application. In a preferred embodiment,the active material can also be doped with available promoters andadditives to further enhance the device's performance. In anotherpreferred embodiment, the active material can also be mixed with inertelements and compositions and insulating formulations to further reducecapital or operating costs such as those from raw materials and pressuredrop.

68. In a preferred embodiment, the catalyst is applied in a form andstructure that minimizes the thermal mass of the system. In this regard,the catalyst and any supporting substrate(s) are considered componentsof the system. A given system's effectiveness is related to the surfacearea of catalyst that participates in the reaction. Thin film or thickfilm catalyst layers provide large surface area compared to bulk orpellet forms using a smaller amount of catalyst.

69. In a specific implementation illustrated in FIG. 10A and FIG. 10B, asubstrate 1001 such as a ceramic honeycomb, for example, supportselectrodes 102 and active layer or layers 101. A variety of ceramichoneycomb support structures 1001 are available ranging in shape fromscreens and grids, to polygon-celled matrices, to coiled structures thatresemble corrugated cardboard, to porous ceramic with multipleheterogeneously- or regularly-shaped cells. Each of these structuresenable a catalyst 101 to be coated onto some or all surfaces of thesupport 1001 using deposition or thin film techniques to some or allsurfaces while enabling a fluid stream to pass through the structurewith high exposure to the catalyst as suggested by the arrows in FIG.10A. The catalytic support may be ceramic or any other compositionconsisting of elements from the periodic table and composites thereof.The honeycomb may be of various pore sizes, pore size distributions,pore shapes, pore morphology, pore orientation, pore lattices,composition, size, and may be manufactured by any method. To illustrate,the honeycomb may have bee-like hexagonal pore shape and each layer ofthe pore may be aligned with the layer above it. Alternatively thehoneycomb may have circular pore shape and each layer may center at theedge of the layer above it. Numerous other configurations may be appliedto maximize the efficiency and effectiveness of the catalytic process.

70. Electrodes 102 can be affixed to the catalyst coated honeycombstructure, for example, at the front and back of the structure (withrespect to the pore opening) as suggested in FIG. 10B in a manner thatenables an electromagnetic field (e.g. a voltage gradient or currentflow) to be imposed substantially equally across the catalyst coating.Electrodes can be affixed to the catalyst 101 using thin or thick filmtechniques. Other electrode configurations may be equivalentlysubstituted to meet the needs of a particular application so long as theelectrodes when energized by a power supply 106 apply an electromagneticfield across the catalyst 101 itself. Care should be taken to ensurethat the applied electromagnetic field is actually realized in thecatalyst 101 and not dissipated by the support structure 1001. For thisreason, relatively non-conductive materials are preferred for supportstructure 1001. In the case of magnetically induced electromagneticfields, a non-permeable material may be preferred for support structure1001.

71. In contrast to bulk or pellet or film catalyst shapes, honeycombcatalyst layers maximize the potential contact of gases and activespecies such as radical while reducing the mass of catalyst needed whichcan reduce the capital cost of catalyst. Furthermore, it is preferredthat the phonon pathways be minimized to reduce heat loss. One method ofaccomplishing this is to coat any and all surfaces of a honeycombsubstrate. Another method is to produce a honeycomb structure from thecatalytic material directly, with or without dopants; some, but notlimiting, illustrations of such produce would be aerogels, hydrogels,imprint cast material. These techniques reduce the electrical energyneeded to keep the catalyst at a given temperature and given operatingcondition. Less thermal mass and smaller area for conductive orconvective or radiative thermal transport can decrease the cost ofelectrical energy needed for given yield or selectivity. The porosity ofthe honeycomb may be varied both in size and the density of pores and itis anticipated that the porosity characteristic may be different fordifferent chemistries.

72. These examples illustrate the utility of catalyst films in thepractice of field assisted transformation of chemical and materialcompositions. Catalyst supported on honeycomb examples exhibit improvedefficiency in converting chemical compositions from a feed product to anend product. It is contemplated that a wide variety of electrodepatterns, substrate compositions, membrane compositions, and catalystmaterials will benefit from the utility of these features of the presentinvention.

73. In another preferred embodiment, the active layer comprisesfunctional materials such as those that provide thermal, sensing,pressure, charge, field, photons, structural, regeneration or otherneeded functions. Secondary treatments of the active material throughsintering, pressurization, doping, chemical reactions, solid statereaction, self-propagating combustion, reduction, oxidation,hydrogenation, and such treatments may enhance the performance of theactive layer.

74. Possible compositions of the active material include but are notlimited to one or more of the following materials: dielectrics,ferrites, organics, inorganics, metals, semimetals, alloy, ceramic,conducting polymer, non-conducting polymer, ion conducting,non-metallic, ceramic-ceramic composite, ceramic-polymer composite,ceramic-metal composite, metal-polymer composite, polymer-polymercomposite, metal-metal composite, processed materials including paperand fibers, and natural materials such as mica, percolated composites,powder composites, whisker composites, or a combination of one or moreof these. Illustrative formulations include but are not limited to dopedor undoped, stoichiometric or non-stoichiometric alloy or compound ofs-, p-, d-, and f-group of periodic table. Illustrative compositionsthat can be utilized in this invention as is or on substrates includeone-metal or multi-metal oxides, nitrides, carbides, borides, indium tinoxide, antimony tin oxide, rare earth oxides, silicon carbide, zirconiumcarbide, molybdenum carbide, bismuth telluride, gallium nitride,silicon, germanium, iron oxide, titanium boride, titanium nitride,molybdenum nitride, vanadium nitride, zirconium nitride, zirconiumboride, lanthanum boride, iron boride, zirconates, aluminates,tungstates, carbides, silicides, borates, hydrides, oxynitrides,oxycarbides, carbonitrides, halides, silicates, zeolites, self-assembledmaterials, cage structured materials, fullerene materials, nanotubematerials, phosphides, nitrides, chalcogenides, dielectrics, ferrites,precious metals and alloys, non-precious metals and alloys, bimetal andpolymetal systems, ceramics, halogen doped ceramics (such as, but notlimiting to fluorine doped tin oxide), stoichiometric ornon-stoichiometric compositions, stable and metastable compositions,dispersed systems, dendrimers, polymers, enzymes, organometallics,bioactive molecules, and mixtures thereof. Some specific, but notlimiting, examples are listed in Table 2A, 2B, and 2C. TABLE 2AIllustrative Metals and Semimetals Ru Rh Pd Ag Os Ir Pt Au Re W Zn Hg FeCo Ni Cu Pb Bi Sb Sn Te Se As Cd Mo Ti Zr Ce

75. TABLE 2B Illustrative Alloys Added Metal Catalyst to Form AlloyIllustrative Reaction Pt 5-20% Rh ammonia oxidation Ag Au ethyleneoxidation Ag 10% Au cumene oxidation Pt Ge, Sn, In, dehydrogenation andcracking of Ga alkanes Pt Sn + Re dehydrocycilization and aromatizationof alkanes Pt Pb, Cu dehydrocycilization and aromatization of alkanesPt, Pd, Au oxidative dehydrogenation of Ir alkanes; n-butene □butadiene, methanal □ formaldehyde Ru, Os Cu (Ag) catalytic reforming IrAu (Ag, Cu) catalytic reforming of alkanes and cycloalkanes Pd alkaneddehydrogenation and dehydrocyclization

76. TABLE 2C Illustrative Oxide Ceramics CaO, SrO, BaO WO₃, UO₂ NiO,Cu₂O, CuO HgO, PbO₂, Bi₂O₅ Al₂O₃, SiO₂, Ta₂O₅, HfO₂ FeO, CoO, Cr₂O₃,MnO, P₂O₅ Co₃O₄, Fe₃O₄ BeO, B₂O₃, MgO Nb₂O_(5,) MoO₃ CdO, SnO₂, ZnO,GeO₂, Sb₂O_(5,) As₂O₅ Al₂O₃—SiO₂ HfO₂, Fe₂O₃ ZrO₂—SiO₂ Sc₂O₃, TiO₂BeO—SiO₂ ZrO₂, V₂O₅ Y₂O₃—SiO₂ La₂O₃—SiO₂ Ga₂O₃—SiO₂ MgO—SiO₂ SnO₃—SiO₂Sb₃O₃—SiO₂

77. Additionally, the formed active layer 201 can be porous ornon-porous, flat or tapered, uniform or non-uniform, planar or wavy,straight or curved, non-patterned or patterned, micron or sub-micron,micromachined or bulk machined, grain sized confined or not, homogeneousor heterogeneous, spherical or non-spherical, unimodal or polymodal, ora combination of one or more of these.

78. In a preferred embodiment, the electrode structures may comprise anycomposition with a lower impedance than the active material composition.The composition of the electrode layer can include, but is not limitedto, organic materials, inorganic materials, metallic, alloy, ceramic,polymer, non-metallic, ceramic-ceramic composite, ceramic-polymercomposite, ceramic-metal composite, metal-polymer composite,polymer-polymer composite, metal-metal composite, or a combination ofone is or more of these. Geometries may be porous or dense, flat ortapered, uniform or non-uniform, planar or wavy, straight or curved,non-patterned or patterned, micron or sub-micron, grain size confined ornot, or a combination of one or more of these.

79. In the exemplary implementation outlined in FIG. 3, electrodes 202and 302 are formed by available press/coat/mask/print techniques in step309 followed by formation of green electrode layer(s) using, forexample, printing techniques. Alternative methods of forming theelectrode layers 202 and 302 include any method including but notlimited to spin coating, dip coating, surface coating a porousstructure, powder pressing, casting, screen printing, tape forming,curtain deposition, physical sputtering, reactive sputtering, physicalvapor deposition, chemical vapor deposition, ion beam, e-beamdeposition, molecular beam epitaxy, laser deposition, plasma deposition,electrophoretic deposition, magnetophoretic deposition, thermophoreticdeposition, stamping, cold pressing, hot pressing, pressing with anadditive and then removal of the additive by heat or solvents orsupercritical fluids, physical or chemical routes, placing metal platesor films on certain parts of the active material, inserting wire,chemically transforming section in the active layer, centrifugalcasting, gel casting, investment casting, extrusion, electrochemicaldeposition, screen-stencil printing, stacking and laminating, brushpainting, self-assembly, forming with biological processes, or acombination of one or more of the above-mentioned methods.

80. After preparation of the stack, the stack may for some applicationsbe cut cross sectionally into thin slices in step 313 to expose thelayers of the active layer and the electrode. In another embodiment, oneor more of step 307, step 309, and step 313 may be skipped. In suchcases, it is necessary that the equipment containing the catalyticdevice provide external electrodes or equivalent means in some form toenable the flow of charge through the active material. Finally, giventhe catalytic properties of the active layer, some of the steps in FIG.3 may be assisted or accomplished through the use of said catalyticproperties.

81. Each slice obtained from step 313 in FIG. 3 is a device that can beused in a circuit shown as FIG. 4 to transform one or more species in agas, vapor, liquid, supercritical fluid, solid or a combination ofthese. In step 315 the stack is calcined or sintered to reach structuralrobustness, consistency, and performance in the active material andgreen electrode layers.

82. In one embodiment, the device is terminated by forming an electricalcoupling to electrodes 202, 302 in step 317 enabling application of anexternal electrical field. In a preferred embodiment, it is desirablethat the active material and the electrode layers be isolated fromexternal environmental damage such as that from thermal, mechanical,chemical, electrical, magnetic, or radiation effects, or a combinationof one or more of these. This desired protection may be achieved in step317 by providing a conformal covering (not shown) over the layers on theunexposed surfaces, such as an polymer conformal protective layer. Inanother preferred embodiment, the exposed surface may also be isolatedfrom external thermal, mechanical, chemical, electrical, magnetic, orradiation damage by covering with a layer of ceramic or porous rigidmaterial mesh. In yet another preferred embodiment, the exposed surfacemay be covered with a layer that enhances the selectivity of the feedspecies reaching the active surface. Such a layer can include, but isnot limited to, polymers, metals, zeolites, self-assembled materials, orporous media, each of which has a higher permeability for the analyte ofinterest and a lower permeability for other species that are not ofinterest. In some preferred embodiments the exposed surface is coveredwith polymers such as but not limiting to polyethylene, polypropylene,teflon, polycarbonates, or polyaromatics. However, it is generallypreferable that any covering on the exposed surface does not impede theinteraction of the analyte or analytes to be transformed with the activelayer by an amount greater than the species that are not of interest.Exceptions to this general rule may be made in certain cases, forexample, when it is critical to protect the element from destructiveeffects of the environment. In another embodiment, steps 317 and 319 maybe skipped.

83.FIG. 4 shows an exemplary chemical transformation system or reactor400 in using the chemical transformation processes and devices inaccordance with the present invention. The reactor 400 shown in FIG. 4is notable for its simplicity due to the fact that high pressures andhigh temperatures are not required because of the superior performanceof transformation device 401 in accordance with the present invention.The electrodes of device 401 are coupled in a circuit with power supply402 so as to supply an electromagnetic field between the opposingelectrodes of device 401. The circuit shown in FIG. 4 is illustrative;it may be replaced with any suitable circuit that can provide a flow ofcharge, internally (such as but not limiting to ohmic or ion flow orhole flow based current) or externally (such as but not limiting to eddycurrent or induced current from applied electromagnetic field) or both,in a given application.

84. Power supply 402 may supply direct current, alternating current, orany other form of electromagnetic waveform. The charge may be induced toflow in the device when the device is wired or through the use ofwireless techniques.

85. The device 401 may include a single device such as shown in FIG. 1and FIG. 2 or an array of elements such as shown in FIG. 1 and FIG. 2.The electrodes of the device(s) 401 may alternatively provide means toconnect the device to induce interaction with an externally inducedfield such as but not limited to radio frequency or microwave frequencywaves, or the equivalent.

86. Reactor 400 includes an inlet port 403 for receiving a feed streamand an outlet 404 producing a reactant stream. In operation, feed gas orliquid passes in contact with device 401 while power supply 402 isactive and is transformed before passing from outlet 404. Device 401shown in FIG. 4 may be placed in reactor 400 in various ways tomanufacture and practice useful equipment such as, but not limiting to,obtrusive or non-obtrusive manner, as randomly or periodically arrangedpacked bed, with or without baffles to prevent short circuiting of feed,in open or closed reactors, inside pipes or separately designed unit,with accessories such as mixers, in a system that favors laminar or plugor turbulent or no flow, sealed or unsealed, isolated or non-isolated,heated or cooled, pressurized or evacuated, isothermal ornon-isothermal, adiabatic or non-adiabatic, metal or plastic reactor,straight flow or recycle reactor, co-axial or counter-axial flow, andreactor or array of reactors that is/are available.

87. Table 3 lists example reactor technologies that may be used inaccordance with the present invention. To illustrate the scope withoutlimiting it, some examples from the art are listed in Table 3 and somein Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Reactor Technology,John Wiley & Sons, Vol 20, pp 1007-1059 (1993) which is herebyincorporated by reference. TABLE 3 Illustrative reactor designs StirredTank Tubular Tower Fluidized Bed Batch Continuous Packed Bed FilmRecycle Plug Flow Semibatch Non-ideal Membrane Bioreactor Multistage

88. In another preferred embodiment, the catalyst is activated bypassing current through the catalyst which results from applying anelectrical voltage drop across the catalyst material. The catalyst isheated to a temperature greater than 500° C., preferably greater than1000° C., most preferably greater than 1500° C. The heating of thecatalyst can be achieved by conducting an exothermic reaction as well incombination or without the electrical current passing through thematerial. A non-limiting illustration of exothermic reaction iscombustion of hydrocarbons.

89. The hot catalyst is then quenched rapidly by the removal of theapplied current. The quenching can also be accomplished by contacting tothe hot catalyst a cold gas such as that derived from liquid nitrogen,liquid argon or any other fluid. Rapid quenching reduces secondaryreactions that may otherwise reduce yield or produce unwanted species.It is preferred that the quenching medium contains some or all of thespecies which would form the reactants after the activation of thecatalyst. The activated catalyst so produced by in-situ thermal quenchtechniques may then be used in catalytic processes such as but notlimiting to the various embodiments taught in this specification.

90. The ohmic or exothermic reactions may lead to thermal runaway.Thermal runaway refers to an situation in which the processes supplyingheat to the reaction sites of the catalyst produce heat at a faster ratethan can dissipate from the site. While thermal runaway is normallyconsidered to be a problem, for this embodiment thermal runaway offers asurprising opportunity to reach very high temperatures and largequenching. The thermal runaway may be controllably induced in accordancewith the present invention by applied electromagnetic field with orwithout the presence of exothermic reactions during the activationprocess. So long as the heat generated by the exothermic reactions is byitself insufficient to cause a self-sustaining thermal runaway, thethermal runaway can be controlled by application of the electromagneticfield.

91. Applications

92. The method and techniques disclosed can be applied to preparecatalysts and devices in manufacturing of useful chemicals and drugs.The superior performance of the method and device proposed for chemicalcomposition transformation may be used to produce intermediates or finalproducts. Some illustrative, but not limiting reaction paths where thisinvention can be applied are listed in Table 4. Reactions that utilizeone or more elementary reaction paths in Table 4 can also benefit fromthe teachings herein. The benefits of such applications of teachings aremany. To illustrate but not limit, the near ambient condition operationcan reduce the cost and ease the ability to control chemical synthesis;it can in some cases lesser levels of thermal shocks during start upsand shut downs can enhance the robustness of the catalysts. In generalthe invention can be applied to produce useful materials from less valueadded materials, readily available raw materials, or waste streams.TABLE 4 A + s ←→ As 2A + s ←→ A₂s A + 2s ←→ 2A_(1/2)s As ←→ Rs A₂s + s←→ 2As 2A_(1/2)s ←→ Rs + s Rs ←→ R + s As ←→ Rs Rs ←→ R + s Rs ←→ R + sA + s ←→ As A + s ←→ As A + s ←→ As As + s ←→ Rs + Ss As ←→ Rs + S B + s←→ Bs Rs ←→ R + s Rs ←→ R + s As + Bs ←→ Rs + s Ss ←→ S + s Rs ←→ R + sA + s ←→ As A + 2s ←→ 2A_(1/2)s B + s ←→ Bs B + s ←→ Bs B + s ←→ Bs A +Bs ←→ Rs + S As + Bs ←→ Rs + Ss 2A_(1/2)s + Bs ←→ Rs + Rs ←→ R + s Rs ←→R + s Ss + s Ss ←→ S + s Rs ←→ R + s Ss ←→ S + s

93. One of the significant commercially important application of thisinvention is in providing candidates to and in improving the performanceof catalysis science and technology. This is particularly desirable forexisting precious-metal and non-precious metal based catalyticformulations, heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysis, and for catalyticapplications such as but not limiting to those and as known in the artand which are herewith included by reference. To illustrate the scopewithout limiting it, some examples where this invention can be appliedare listed in Tables 5A, 5B, 5C, 5D, 5E, 5F and some are listed in theart such as Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Catalysis,John Wiley & Sons, Vol 5, pp 320-460 (1993) and references containedtherein. TABLE 5A ILLUSTRATIVE APPLICATIONS Catalyst Reaction metals(e.g., Ni, Pd, Pt, C═C bond hydrogenation (e.g., as powders or onsupports) olefin + H₂ □ paraffin) or metal oxides (e.g., Cr₂O₃) metals(e.g., Cu, Ni, Pt) C═O bond hydrogenation (e.g., acetone + H₂ □2-propanol) metal (e.g., Pd, Pt) Complete oxidation of hydrocarbons,oxidation of CO Fe, Ru (supported and 3 H₂ + N₂ → 2 NH₃ promoted withalkali metals) Ni CO + 3 H₂ → CH₄ + H₂O (methanation) CH₄ + H₂O → 3 H₂ +CO (steam reforming) Fe or Co (supported and CO + H₂ □ paraffins +olefins + promoted with alkali H₂O + CO₂ (+ oxygen-containing metals)organic compounds) (Fischer- Tropsch reaction) Cu (supported on ZnO,CO + 2 H₂ → CH₃OH with other components, e.g., Al₂O₃) Re + Pt (supportedon paraffin dehydrogenation, Al₂O₃ and isomerization and promoted withchloride) dehydrocyclization (e.g., heptane → toluene + 4 H₂ ) (naphthareforming) solid acids (e.g., SiO₂— paraffin cracking and Al₂O₃,zeolites) isomerization; aromatic alkylation; polymerization of olefinsAl₂O₃ alcohol → olefin + H₂O Pd supported on zeolite paraffinhydrocracking metal-oxide-supported olefin polymerization (e.g.,complexes of Cr, Ti, or Zr ethylene □ polyethylene)metal-oxide-supported olefin metathesis (e.g., 2 complexes of W or Repropylene □ ethylene + butene) V₂O₅ or Pt 2 SO₂ + O₂ → 2 SO₃ V₂O₅ (onmetal-oxide naphthalene + 9/2 O₂ → phthalic support) anhydride + 2 CO₂ +2 H₂O oxylene + 3 O₂ → phthalic anhydride + 3 H₂O Ag (on inert support,Ethylene + ½ O₂ → ethylene oxide promoted by alkali metals) (with CO₂ +H₂O) bismuth molybdate, uranium propylene + ½ O₂ □ acrolein antimonate,other mixed propylene + 3/2 O₂ + NH₃ □ metal oxides acrylonitrile + 3H₂O mixed oxides of Fe and Mo CH₃OH + O₂ □ formaldehyde (with CO₂ andH₂O) Fe3O4 or metal sulfides H₂O + CO □ H₂ + CO₂ (water gas shiftreaction) Co—Mo/Al₂O₃ (S) and olefin hydrogenation, aromatic Ni—Mo/Al₂O₃(S) and hydrogenation Ni—W/Al₂O₃ (S) hydrodesulfurization,hydrodenitrogenation

94. TABLE 5B ILLUSTRATIVE APPLICATIONS Catalyst Industry processHydrogen, carbon monoxide, methanol, and ammonia ZnO, activated C Feedpretreatment for reforming supported Ni, Cr-promoted Fe ReformingCuO—ZnO—Al₂O₃ Shift reaction supported Ni Methanation promoted FeAmmonia synthesis Cu—Cr—Zn oxide, Zn Methanol synthesis chromiteHydrogenation 25% Ni in oil Edible and inedible oil activated Ni Variousproducts Dehydrogenation chrome alumina Butadiene from butane promotedFe oxide Styrene from ethylbenzene Oxidation, ammoxidation,oxychlorination supported Ag Ethylene oxidedrom ethylene Pt—Rh gauzeNitric acid from ammonia V₂O₅ on silica Sulfuric acid from sulfurdioxide V₂O₅ Maleic anhydride from benzene V₂O₅ Phthalic anhydride fromo-xylene and naphthalene copper chloride Ethylene dichloride Organicsynthesis Pt and Pd on C and petrochemicals and specialty Al₂O₃chemicals anhydrous AlCl₃ Ethylbenzene, detergent alkylate, etc.phosphoric acid Cumene, propylene trimer, etc. Polymerization Al alkylsand/or TiCl₃ Ziegler-Natta processing Cr oxide on silica Polyethylene(by Phillips process) Peresters Polyethylene (low density) PercarbonatesPoly (vinyl chloride) benzoyl peroxide Polystyrene Amines, organotinPolyurethanes compounds

95. TABLE 5C ILLUSTRATIVE APPLICATIONS Oxychlorination Catalysts (Fixedbed/Fluid bed) Catalysts for Methyl Chloride, Methyl Amine, and Melamineprocessing Catalysts for isomerization of low carbon hydrocarbons suchas C4 and C5/C6 Guard bed catalyst HDS, HDN, hydrodemetallization andhydrogenation catalyst Metal and Alloy Catalysts such as but notlimiting to NiMo and CoMo Sulfided catalyst Catalysts for Ethylene Oxide(EO), one of the major building blocks of the chemical industry, used inthe manufacture of Mono Ethylene Glycol (MEG), Ethoxylates,Ethanolamines and many other derivatives. MEG itself is a feedstock forthe production of antifreeze, polyester, fibers and PET bottles.Catalysts for CO₂ Lasers and other equipment so that they can beoperated without replenishing the operating gases Sponge Metal catalysts(also known as raney catalysts)

96. TABLE 5D ILLUSTRATIVE APPLICATIONS Catalysts for FCC PretreatmentCatalysts for hydrotreatment of heavy VGO or VGO/Resid blends with ahigh metals content, high CCR and high final boiling point. Catalystsfor Hydrocracking Pretreatment, Mild Cracking, and HydrocrackingHydroprocessing catalysts and Fluid Cat Cracking (FCC) Catalyst Pretreatcatalysts in general, such as but not limiting to hydrodemetallization,Conradson carbon removal, hydrodenitrogenation and hydrodesulfurization.Amorphous and zeolite based Hydrocracking catalysts. Catalysts for Residhydrotreatment Catalysts to derive maximum product value from LPGolefins such as propylene, iso-butylene and iso- amylenes. Catalysts tomaximize octane barrels by improving octane without sacrificing gasolineyield. Catalysts to maximize production of transportation fuels such asgasoline and diesel from any feedstock. Catalysts for maximummid-distillate production, such as diesel and jet fuels. Catalysts toextend the frontiers of resid cracking, balancing bottoms conversion,low delta coke and metals tolerance. Catalysts for maximum octanes (RONand MON) and light olefins production Catalysts to provide maximumoctane barrels for applications where excellent octanes at maximumgasoline yield is required

97. TABLE 5E ILLUSTRATIVE APPLICATIONS Catalysts for selective catalyticreduction (SCR) technology. Illustrative, but not exhaustiveapplications include Gas Turbines, Chemical Plants (e.g. Nitric Acid,Caprolactam, etc.), Waste Incinerators, Refinery Heaters, EthyleneCrackers, and Gas Motors. Zeolites and related applications of zeolites(Adsorption, Separation, Catalysis, and Ion Exchange) Emission-controlcoatings and systems that remove harmful pollutants, improve fueleconomy and enhance product performance in a wide range of applications,including: trucks and buses, motorcycles, lawn and garden tools,forklifts, mining equipment, aircraft, power generation, and industrialprocess facilities. Surface coatings for design, manufacture andreconditioning of critical components in aerospace, chemical andpetrochemical industries. Catalysts used in preparing, processing, andtreating semiconductor industry gases, liquids, and emissions Catalystsare capable of destroying ozone (the main component of smog) already inthe air. Catalysts to lower ozone, NOx, and SOx levels Catalysts forCombustion Catalysts to improve air quality

98. TABLE 5F ILLUSTRATIVE APPLICATIONS OF CLAIMED INVENTION Catalyststhat facilitate the manufacture of petrochemicals, fine chemicals, fats,oils and pharmaceuticals and aid in petroleum refining. Catalysts thatpurify fuel, lubrication oils, vegetable oils and fats. Catalysts forwater filtration technologies. Food and Beverage Industry Catalysts.Paper, Pulp, and Glass Industry Catalysts Catalysts for producingInorganic chemicals Antimicrobial Catalysts Catalysts to in-situ producechemicals used in households Enzyme and Microbial Catalysts Catalystsused in biomedical business. Important products include but do not limitto powerful narcotic- based pain killers such as sufentanil, fentanylbase and hydromorphone. Catalysts used in forensic equipment and sensorsCatalysts used in analytical instruments

99. The teachings of the present invention can be used to research anddevelop, to rapidly screen novel catalysts by techniques such ascombinatorial methods, and to optimize catalysts through the use ofarrays in electrical and microelectronic circuits.

100. The application of electrical current in particular, andelectromagnetic field in general, can enable the ability to extend thelife of catalysts, or improve their activity, yields, light offtemperatures, turn over rates, stability, and selectivity with orwithout simultaneous changes in the operating conditions such astemperature, pressure, and flow profile. The catalyst so operated withelectromagnetic field is anticipated to enable reactor temperatures andpressures or conditions that are more desirable to customers andintegrated to the operating conditions of a specific manufacturingscheme. Furthermore, this invention of applying electromagnetic effectson the catalyst can enable reaction schemes that are switched on or offat will by switching on or off of the electromagnetic fieldrespectively. Such flexibilities can be highly valuable in controllingand enhancing of safety of reactions that may be explosive or that mayyield dangerous and hazardous byproducts. The invention can also beapplied to produce multiple useful products from same reactor throughthe variation on-demand of the applied electromagnetic field or feed orother operating conditions required to meet the needs of a particularapplication.

101. The benefits of this invention can be practiced in lowering thelight-off temperatures in combustion exhaust systems. As oneillustration of many applications, it is known in the art that emissioncontrol catalysts such as the three-way catalysts placed in automobileexhausts operate efficiently at temperatures greater than about 350° C.These non-ambient temperatures require a heat source and often theexhaust heat from the vehicle's engine is the principal source of theneeded heat. During initial start up phase of the engine, it takes abouta minute to heat the catalyst to such temperatures. Consequently, thevehicle emission controls are least effective during the start. Methodsto rapidly heat the catalyst to such temperatures or lower temperaturecatalysts are desired. Methods have been proposed to preheat thecatalysts by various techniques, however, such techniques require highpower to operate, add weight, and are not robust. The teachingscontained herein can be used to prepare catalytic units or modifyexisting catalytic units to operate at lower temperatures (less than350° C., preferably less than 200° C.) and quicker light-offs. Theseteachings apply to combustion in general and to emission control systemsused in other mobile and stationary units. The teachings may also bepracticed by coating the engine cylinder's inside, operating the saidcoating with electrical current during part of or the completecombustion cycles. Such an approach can help modify the reaction pathsinside the cylinder and thereby prevent or reduce pollution-at-source.

102. The benefits of the teachings contained herein can be applied tothe control of difficult-to-treat species such as NOx, SOx, CFCs, HFCs,and ozone. One method is to prevent these species from forming throughthe use of novel catalytic devices with electrical current inparticular, and electromagnetic field in general. Alternatively, usingsuch catalytic devices with electrical current, streams containing thesespecies may be treated with or without secondary reactants such as CO,hydrocarbons, oxygen, ammonia, urea, or any other available rawmaterial, or combinations thereof.

103. The invention is particularly useful for applications thatcurrently require high temperatures or heavy equipment due to inherentlyhigh pressures during reaction or excessive volumes, as the teachings ofthe presently claimed invention can offer a more economically desirablealternative. Illustrations of such applications, without limiting thescope of this invention, include pollutant treatment or synthesis offuel and useful chemicals in space vehicles, submarines, fuel cells,miniature systems in weight sensitive units such as automobiles,airplanes, ships, ocean platforms, remote sites and habitats. This canhelp reduce the weight of the unit, reduce capital costs, reduceinventory costs, and reduce operating costs. Any applications thatdesire such benefits in general can utilize the teachings of thisinvention.

104. The invention can offer a long sought alternative for catalyzingreactions on feeds that contain poisoning species, i.e. species that cancause reversible or irreversible poisoning of available catalysts (forexample, but not limiting to, illustrations in Table 6A and 6B). TABLE6A Process or Product Catalytic Material Catalyst Poisons AmmoniaFeO/Fe₂O₃ promoted Moisture, CO, CO₂, by Al₂O₃ and K₂O O₂, compounds ofS, P, and As Aniline Ni powder, Al₂O₃ Groups VA and VIA Raney-Ni or -Cu,elements Cu- chromite Butadiene Ca₈Ni(PO₄)₆ Halides, O₂, S, P, Cr₂O₃ onAl₂O₃ Si Bi-molybdate Fe₂O₃ + Cr₂O₃ + K₂O Ethanol H₃PO₄ on KieselguhrNH₃, O₂, S, organic base Ethylene oxide Ag-oxide on Compounds of Srefractory oxide Formaldehyde Ag on Al₂O₃ Ag Cl₂, S compounds needlesFeO₃ +MoO₃ Methanol ZnO + Cr₂O₃ S compounds, Fe, Ni CuO S compoundsNitric acid Pt on Rh Compounds of As and Cl₂ Polyethylene Al-alkyl-TiMoisture, alcohols, tetrachloride O₂, So₂, COS, CO₂, Precipitate CoStyrene (a) Fe₂O₃ + K₂O + Halides, S Cr₂O₃ compounds, O, P, Si (b)Fe₂O₃ + K₂CO₃ + Cr₂O₃ + V₂O₅ Sulfuric Acid V₂O₅ + K₂O on Halides, As, TeKieselguhr Cracking, Synthetic Organometallic alkylation, andaluminosilicate; compounds, isomerization of AICI₃ organic basespetroleum fraction H₃PO₄ Desulfurization, (NiO + MoO₃) (CoO + H₂S, CO,CO₂, heavy denitrogenation, MoO₃) or (NiO + hydrocarbon anddeoxygenation WO₃) on alumina deposits, compounds of Na, As, Pb

105. TABLE 6B Active Poisons and Reaction catalyst inhibitors Mode ofaction NH₃ Fe S, Se, Te, P, poison: strong synthesis As compounds,chemisorption or halogens compound formation O₂, H₂O, NO weak poison:CO₂ oxidation of Fe CO surface: reduction unsaturated possible, butcauses hydrocarbons sintering inhibitor: reaction with alkalinepromoters poison and inhibitor: strong chemisorption, on reductionslowly converted to methane: accelerates sintering inhibitor: strongchemisorption, slow reduction Hydrogenation Ni, Pt, S, Se, Te, P,poison: strong Pd, Cu As compounds, chemisorption halogens poison: alloyHg and Pb formation compounds poison: surface O₂ oxide film CO Ni formsvolatile carbonyls Catalytic alumino- amines, H₂O inhibitor: blockagecracking silicate coking of active centers poison: blockage of activecenters NH₃ Pt—Rh P, As, Sb, poison: alloying, oxidation compounds;gauze becomes Pb, zn, Cd, Bi brittle rust causes NH₃ alkaline oxidesdecomposition poison: reacts with Rh₂O₃ SO₂ V₂O₅—K₂S₂O₇ As compoundsinhibitor □ oxidation poison: compound formation

106. To illustrate this feature of the present invention, it is wellknown in the art that precious metal catalysts are useful in numerousreactions. However, these and other catalysts tend to get poisoned whenthe feed stream contains sulfur or sulfur containing species. Extensiveand often expensive pre-treatment of the feed streams is often requiredto ensure that the catalyst is not poisoned. The present inventiondescribes materials and devices that can catalyze reactions withnon-precious metal based formulations that are not known to be poisonedby sulfur. Thus, through appropriate variations in catalyst compositionand electromagnetic field, chemical reactions may be realized even ifpoisoning species are present. This reduces or eliminate the need forexpensive and complex pre-treatment of feed streams.

107. This method is not limited to precious metal poisoning and can beapplied to finding catalyst alternatives for presently used catalyststhat are based on other materials (supported, unsupported, precipitated,impregnated, skeletal, zeolites, fused, molten, enzyme, metalcoordination, ion exchange, bifunctional, basic, acidic, sulfide, salt,oxide, metal, alloys, and intermetallic catalysts). The method is alsonot limited to sulfur poisoning and the teachings can be used whenpoisoning or loss in stability is caused by species other than sulfur.The method can also be applied to cases where solutions need to be foundfor catalysts or systems that undergo coking, thermal run away, andchemical effects.

108. The invention also offers a method of developing and practicingnon-precious alternatives to expensive precious metal-based catalysts.This can reduce catalyst costs. Such uses of invention are desirable inautomobile exhaust catalysts, emissions treatment catalysts, naphthacatalysts, petroleum cracking catalysts, and applications that utilizeprecious metals. Notwithstanding such use and uses discussed earlier,these teachings are not meant to limit to the teachings of presentlyclaimed invention to non-precious metals and materials based thereof.Precious metals and materials based thereof may be used in the practiceof this invention's teachings.

109. The benefits of this invention may be obtained where localizedheating is desired because, at contact points between the catalyticparticles, the grain boundaries may be hot because of the ohmic heating.These localized hot spots can offer active sites for chemical reactions.Given the nanostructured form of the catalysts, these microscopic hotspots are localized because of the low thermal conductivity of theporous ceramic substrate. Such localized heating would raise thereaction temperatures very locally, i.e. only of gas molecules that arein immediate vicinity or in direct contact with the catalyst. Once theproducts leave the hot spot, the product compositions are expected toquench from thermal collisions and low bulk temperatures. Hence, thepresent invention enables thermally activated reactions to be confinedto the vicinity of the catalyst.

110. Such a localized heating phenomena may dramatically limit thesecondary series reactions. In conventional catalysts that are heated byexternal furnace, both the active site temperatures and the bulk gastemperatures are high. Therefore, in conventional catalysis, theproducts can participate in secondary series reactions leading tocomplex reaction pathway and possibly poor selectivity. When rawmaterials are preheated, for example, reactions may occur before contactwith the catalyst. When the reaction environment itself is heated,secondary reactions may continue after contact with the catalyst. Thesesecondary reactions are independent the desired catalytic reactions andso may produce undesirable effects and/or products.

111. In electrically activated catalysis in accordance with the presentinvention, an unusual flexibility exists as it can provide localized hotspots suitable for selective chemistry that is dependent on (i.e.,assisted by) the catalyst, and then low bulk temperatures before andafter catalyst contact suitable for limiting the kinetics of secondaryreactions. These benefits are anticipated when the grain surface issimilarly or more or less conductive than the grain bulk. In otherwords, one of the unique inventions disclosed here is the method ofconducting useful chemical reactions and transformations from any rawmaterial when the active site on the catalyst surface is heated by theflow of current while the bulk of the reactor environment is maintainedat a different temperature (difference is preferably greater than 10°C.). It is important to note that for the described benefit, thesubstrate on which the catalyst is deposited should offer higherimpedance to current than the catalyst itself, and preferably theimpedance of the substrate should be 50% or more than the impedance ofthe catalyst.

112. Most and preferably substantially all the current flows in thecatalyst rather than the catalytic support. It is known to use currentflowing in the catalytic support to create ohmic heating that modifiesthe catalytic performance and/or regenerates the catalyst affixed to thesupport. However, the present invention operates to cause current in thecatalyst, and is not concerned primarily with heating or current flow inthe catalytic support structure. Preferably, current flowing in thecatalyst exceeds the current flowing through the catalytic support. Morespecifically, for example, current flowing in the catalyst representsmore than 75%, more preferably more than 90%, and still more preferablygreater than 95% of the total available current. This can beimplemented, for example, by using insulating, semi-insulating, and/orhighly resistive materials and structures to support the catalyst.

113. The benefits of this invention may also be applied in the design ofnovel catalysts and other performance materials. Catalytic activity hasits origin in the electronic state of a substance (i.e. amongst otherthings the number of electrons and the orbitals associated with theseelectrons). It is known that precious metals (Pt, Pd, Ir, Ru, etc.) showsuperior catalytic activity for a wide range of chemical reactions.However, these elements are expensive. There has been a need for atechnology that can help design substance that are more affordable thanprecious metals and yet that show performance comparable with theprecious metals.

114. An embodiment of the present invention involves modification of theelectronic state of a substance through the application of anelectromagnetic field applied to the substance. The application of anelectromagnetic field may be used to modify the performance of suchmaterials (e.g. catalytic, structural, thermal, electromagnetic,optical, photonic, physical, chemical, biological performance). This maybe achieved by the application of an electrical field (such as passageof current or application of a voltage gradient) or through inducedfield. While the former method is explained in detail elsewhere in thisdisclosure, the later method is illustrated hereinafter.

115. It is known to those in the art that dissimilar substances incontact induce an electromagnetic potential. This effect is in part thebasis of Seebeck and Peltier Effects. This induced voltage offersanother opportunity to modify the electronic state of a substance andconsequently modify the materials performance. For example, acombination of disparate nanostructured particles can be formed by anyavailable mixing technique such that particles with differentcompositions are sufficiently adjacent that the share domain boundaries.In other words, their domain boundaries overlap. Because their domainboundaries overlap, it is believed that an electromagnetic field isinduced about the domain boundary. This induced electromagnetic field,either alone or in combination with an externally appliedelectromagnetic field, modifies the catalytic performance of thecombined nanostructured materials.

116. This effect is believed to be more pronounced in dissimilarmaterials when these materials are in nanostructured form. This isbelieved to be because of the fact that nanostructured materials havehigh interface area. This provides more interaction of the surface atomsof the contacting substances. With particle sizes smaller than thecritical domain sizes of the materials involved, these effects arebelieve to be more pronounced. With very small clusters, this effect isexpected to be most pronounced. In this embodiment, two or moredissimilar nanomaterials are formed into a structure where thedissimilar nanomaterials share grain boundaries. At the grainboundaries, the dissimilarity induces an electromagnetic potential inthe grains, i.e. one grain is somewhat positively induced and the otheris negatively induced. The charge so induced affects the Fermi levelelectrons in the respective material. Given the fact that the usefulperformance and properties of a material are in part dependent on thenature and state of the Fermi electrons in a material, induced charge ina material is anticipated to modify the performance of the material by5% or more.

117. These effects can be used to generalize a method of making usefulcatalytic materials from nanomaterials. This embodiment involves amethod of manufacturing catalysts with nanomaterials where two or moredissimilar materials are formed into a structure such that at least atsome of the grain boundaries there is interaction between the dissimilarmaterials. Furthermore at these grain boundaries there is an inducedcharge in the nanostructured grains because of the dissimilar materialcompositions. This induced charge modifies the performance of thematerial in contrast to the state where the material has no inducedcharge. Such dissimilar nanomaterial catalysts may be used to conductuseful chemical reactions and transformations from any raw material.Furthermore, nanomaterial structures of these types may be used tomodify other performance of the material as well in other applications,e.g. structural, thermal, electromagnetic, optical, photonic, physical,chemical, biological. Finally, one may use a dielectric, ferromagnetic,or other materials to allow one to combine external electromagneticfield and the induced charges for beneficial modification of thematerials' performance.

118. It should be noted that these embodiments are akin to, yet distinctfrom, alloy catalysts. For example, this embodiment of the inventionrequires the use of materials in a form that has high interfacial areaper unit volume. Furthermore, it is necessary in this embodiment thatelectromagnetic interactions occur between the different materials atthese interfacial grain boundaries. In contrast, in alloyed mixturesthere are no grain boundaries and there is no electromagneticinteraction between the different constituent of an alloy. Also, thereare a limited set of materials that will form alloys, and the materialsstructures of the present invention include a much wider range ofmaterials including materials that normally cannot be alloyed together.

119. Similarly, it should be noted that this embodiment is akin to, yetdistinct from, catalysts that are produced by mixing different materials(metals, oxides, alloys, etc.). As stated above, this embodiment of theinvention requires the use of materials in a form that has high specificinterfacial area. Furthermore, it is necessary in this embodiment thatelectromagnetic interactions occur between the different materials atthese interfacial grain boundaries. In contrast, in catalyst produced bymixing materials, other than grain contact leading to point junctions,there is no intimate contact between the mixed materials. Furthermore,the mixed materials are essentially equipotential with noelectromagnetic interaction between the different constituent of themixture. The embodiment explained here requires that there be aninteraction and that the nanomaterials interfaces be not at the sameelectromagnetic potential.

120. As specific example of implementing an embodiment of inducedvoltage, when cobalt nanomaterial and gold nanomaterial are mixed, it isanticipated that cobalt will perform with a nickel-like behavior whilegold will perform with a platinum-like behavior (because platinum isnext to gold in the periodic table and gold Fermi electrons underinduced charge are expected to behave like platinum Fermi electrons;similarly nickel is next to cobalt in the periodic table and cobaltFermi electrons under induced charge are expected to behave like nickelFermi electrons) . As another example, when iron and silvernanoparticles are mixed, it is anticipated that cobalt-like andpalladium-like behavior will be observed. As yet another example, whentungsten and gold nanoparticles or nanofilms are brought into proximity,rhenium and platinum-like performance is anticipated to be observed atthe interface and interface influenced sites. Also, a mixture oftantalum and copper nanoscale clusters is expected to yield a tungstenand nickel-like performance. This behavior is expected to be observedeven in non-stoichiometric substances, e.g. non-stoichiometric reducedmixtures of metal oxides, nitrides, carbides, borides, oxonitrides,carbonitrides, and other substances. While the above illustrates theembodiment with two metals, these teachings can be applied to more thantwo metals and to substances that are not metals.

121. While this disclosure specifically teaches methods and processesfor engineering catalytic performance of substances through the use ofapplied or induced charge, the teachings can be applied in general toengineer the structural, thermal, electrical, magnetic, electronic,optical, photonic, electrochemical, physical, chemical, biologicalperformance of substances as well, through the application of applied orinduced charge. Such engineering using induced or applied charge isexpected to yield performance enhancements greater than 5% over the casewhere no charge is induced or applied. Both applied and inducedelectromagnetic potential may be utilized for engineering theperformance of a substance or mixture of substances.

122. The benefits of this invention may also be applied where the chargeflow through the catalyst affects the surface potential of active sites.It may also participate in the surface diffusion of any radicals orcharged species adsorbed on the catalyst's surface. In such a case, thecharge flow can be responsible in modifying the adsorption anddesorption kinetics of the species involved in the chemical reaction.The surface charge potential can also have some steric influences. Theseeffects can be pronounced if the rate limiting step in a specificchemistry is either surface diffusion or the adsorption/desorption ofspecific radicals on the surface of the catalyst. Furthermore, thiseffect can be pronounced when the charge flow is primarily over thegrain boundaries and surface of the catalyst. Electrical current, insuch circumstances, can offer an additional independent processvariable. This variable can help control a chemical pathway throughvariations in the applied and/or induced electromagnetic potential.

123. The benefits of the teachings contained in this invention can beutilized in research and development and manufacture of inorganic,organic, and pharmaceutical substances from various precursors, such asbut not limiting to illustrations in Table 7A, 7B, 7C, 7D, 7E, 7F, and7G(these and others can be found in literature). TABLE 7A IllustrativeInorganic Reactants and Product Candidate for Catalysis AmmoniaMagnetite Calcium carbide Ammonium nitrate Oxides Calcium carbonateAmmonium carbonate Nitric acid Calcium chloride Ammonium Phosphoric acidCalcium cyanamide perchlorate Ammonium sulfite Nitrogen oxides Calciumhydroxide Carbon Metals and Alloys Sulfur Carbon dioxide Pyrite ThioureaCarbon disulfide Sulfur Oxides Titanium dioxide Carbon monoxideCarbonates Urea Radicals Sodium nitrate Zinc sulfide Lead Sulfide Sodiumsulfite Sulfur dioxide Ozone Alkalis Hydrogen Sulfide

124. TABLE 7B Illustrative Inorganic Reactions Candidate for Applicationof this Invention Reaction Current Catalyst Para-H₂ conversion hydratedFe oxides Production of H₂ and CO Ni/Al₂O₃ steam reforming of methaneH₂O + CH₄ → 3H₂ + CO watergas shift reaction Fe—Cr oxides CO + H₂O →H₂ + CO₂ Cu—Zn oxides Methanation Ni CO + 3 H₂ → CH₄ + H₂O Oxidation ofNH₃ to NO Pt—Rh wire gauze NH₃ + 1.25 O₂ → NO + 1.5 H₂O Synthesis ofamonia Fe₃O₄ promoted N₂ + 3 H₂ → 2 NH₃ With K, Ca, Mg, Al Oxidation ofSO₂ to SO₃ V₂O₅ Claus process Al₂O₃ recovery of S from SO₂ + H₂S 2 H₂S +SO₂ → 3 S + 2 H₂O Decomposition of NH₃ Ni/ceramic 2 NH₃ → N₂ + 3 H₂

125. TABLE 7C Organic Reactants and Product Candidate for CatalysisAcetaldehyde Cyclohexane Isobutene Peracetic acid Acetone MetallorganicsIsocyanates, Styrene alcohols Acetylene Cyclohexene Isoprene PropyleneAcrylonitrile Cyclopentene Methane Adipic Acid Amide Ethane MethanolAliphatics Aliphatic Ethanol Methyl Tetrachlorobenzene glycolsmethacrylate Aniline Ethyl acetate Nitroacetanilide TetranitromethaneAcetic Acid Ethyl nitrate Nitroalkanes Triphenylsilane Alkanes Ethylnitrite Nitrobenzene Urea Benzaldehyde Ethylene Aromatics AlkenesBenzene Ethylene 2,4- Vinyl Dinitroacetanilide chloride Ethyl Butadienen-Pentane Alkynes nitrate Ethyl m- Phenol, m-cresol Dendrimers nitriteChloroaniline Propylene Propane Propionic Acid Ethylene Oxide AldehydesAlcohols Ketones Acids Anhydrides Amines Isomers Oxides Sulfur Phospho-Salts Alkaloids Organics Organics Styrene Nitro Fullerenes Bio-derivedOrganics Cumene CFCs HFCs Monomers Cycloalkanes CycloalkenesCycloalkynes Cage Compounds

126. TABLE 7D Illustrative Organic Reactions Candidate for Applicationof the present Invention Reaction Current Catalyst Selectivehydrogenation edible oils Raney Ni, Ni—NiO/support inedible oils RaneyNi, Ni—NiO/support acetylene → ethylene supported Pd + Pb, S, quinolinediolefins → olefins Pd/Al₂O₃ unsaturated aldehydes → Pt/supportsaturated aldehydes unsaturated aldehydes → saturated Pt/support (Zn—Fe)alchohols unsaturated nitriles → saturated Pd/C nitriles unsaturatedanhydrides → Pd/support saturated anhydrides Aromatic hydrogenationbenzene → cyclohexane Ni/support, Raney Ni phenol → cyclohexanonePt/support phenol → cyclohexanol Pt/Support or Ni naphthalene → tetra-and Ni/support decahydronaphthalenes Asymmetric hydrogenationRh-cyclooctadiene with phosphine Hydrogenation nitriles → amines RaneyCo oximes → hydroxylamines Pt or Pd aldehydes → alcohols NiO/support, Cuchromite Reduction nitro compounds → amines Pd/C, Cu chromite acids →alcohols Raney Co, Cu chromite succinic anhydride → butyrolactoneNi/SiO₂ acyl chlorides → aldehydes Pd/BaSO₄ (Rosenmund reaction)

127. TABLE 7E Illustrative Organic Reactions Candidate for Applicationof the present Invention Reaction Current Catalyst Dehydrogenationbutenes → butadiene Ca(Sr)Ni phosphate ethylbenzene → styreneFe₂O₃—Cr₂O₃ (K₂O) Butane → butadiene Cr₂O₃/Al₂O₃ Hexane → benzenePt/Al₂O₃ Cyclohexane → benzene Pt/Al₂O₃ Cyclohexanol → cyclohexanone ZnO(alkali) Oxidative dehydrogenation butenes → butadiene Bi molybdatealcohols → aldehydes, ketones ZnO, Cu chromite, Raney Ni Liquid-phaseoxidation ethylene → acetaldehyde PdCl₂—CuCl₂ propene → acetonePdCl₂—CuCl₂ butene → 2-butanone PdCl₂—CuCl₂ ethylene + acetic acid →vinyl PdCl₂—CuCl₂ acetate propene + acetic acid → allyl PdCl₂—CuCl₂acetate cyclohexane → cyclohexanol + Co acetate cyclohexanone buane →acetic acid Co acetate actaldehyde → acetic anhydride Co acetatecylohexanol + cyclohexanone → V salt (+ HNO₃ as adipic acid oxidant)toluene → benzoic acid Co acetate benzoic acid → phenol Cu p-xylene →terephthalic acid Co acetate m-xylene → isophthalic acid Co acetateVapor-phase oxidation ethylene → ethylene oxide Ag/support alcohols →aldehydes or Fe₂O₃—MoO₃ or Ag ketones propene, isobutene → Cu₂O, Bimolybdate unsaturated aldehydes o-xylene, naphthalene → V₂O₅/TiO₂,phthalic anhydride V₂O₅—K₂S₂O₇/SiO₂ butane or butene → maleicV₂O₅—P₂O₅/support anhydride benzene → maleic anhydride V₂O₅—MoO₃,(P₂O₅)/ support

128. TABLE 7F Illustrative Organic Reactions Candidate for Applicationof this Invention Reaction Current Catalyst Ammoxidation propene + NH₃ →acrylonitile Bi molybdate, U—Sb oxides isobutene + NH₃ →methacrylonitrile multicomponent oxide toluene + NH₃ → benzonitrileV₂O₅—MoO₃/Al₂O₃ m-xylene + NH₃ → isophthalonitrile V₂O₅—MoO₃/Al₂O₃o-xylene +NH₃ → phthalonitrile V₂O₅—Sb₂O₅ 3- or 4-picoline + NH₃ → 3- or4- V₂O₅—MoO₃/Al₂O₃ cyanopyridine methane + NH₃ → hydrogen cynanide Pt—Rhwire gauze Oxychlorination ethylene + 2 HCl + 0.5 O₂ → vinyl CuCl₂/Al₂O₃chloride + H₂O Hydration Ethylene → ethanol H₃PO₄/SiO₂ propene →2-propanol H₃PO₄/SiO₂ Dehyrdation x-phenylethanol → styrene NaPO₃/SiO₂,Al₂O₃ higher alcohols → olefins Zeolite acids + ammonia → nitrilesH₃PO₄/SiO₂ butylene glycol → butyrolactone Zeolite alcohols + ammonia →amines SiO₂/Al₂O₃ Miscellaneous reactions benzene + ethylene →ethylbenzene BF₃/Al₂O₃, AlCl₃ benzene + propene → cumene H₃PO₄/SiO₂isocyanuric acid → melamine Al₂O₃ cumene hydroperoxide → phenol + H₂SO4acetone

129. TABLE 7G Illustrative Reactions Candidate for Application of thisInvention Reaction Current Catalyst Methanol synthesis ZnO—Cr₂O₃ CO +2H₂ → CH₃OH Cu—ZnO—Al₂O₃ Cu—ZnO—Cr₂O₃ Methanation CO + 3 H₂ → CH₄ + H₂ONi/Al₂O₃ CO + H₂ □ → higher alcohols + H₂O CuCoM_(0.8)K_(0.1)oxide, M =Cr, Mn, Fe, or V Fischer-Tropsch synthesis CO + H₂ □ → hydrocarbons +H₂O Fe oxide (promoted) Hydroformylation (Oxo reaction) HCo(CO)₄olefin + CO + H₂ □ → aldehyde HRh(CO) (PPh₃)₃ Miscellaneous CH₃I + CO □→ CH₃COI [Rh(CO)₂I₂] CH₂O + H₂ + CO □ → HOCH₂CHO HRh(CO)₂(PPh₃)₃ CH₂O +CO + H₂O □ → HOCH₂COOH Nafion-H resin Addition RhCI₃ ethylene +butadiene → 1,4- hexadiene + 2,4-hexadiene Cyclization 2 butadiene →cis, cis-1.5- Ni(acrylonitrile)₂ + PPh₃ cyclooctadieneNi(acrylonitrile)₂ 3 butadiene → 2,5,9- cyclododecatriene Olefinmetathesis (dismutation) Mo or W/Al₂O₃ or W/SiO₂ 2 propene → ethylene +butene cyclohexene + ethylene → 1,7- octadiene Oligomerization AI(C₂H₅)₃2 ethylene → butene ethylene → ^(MC)-olefins Polymerization ethylene →polyethylene TiCI₄ + AI(C₂H₅)₃ propene → polypropylene CrO₃/SiO₂(isotactic) MoO₃/Al₂O₃ butadiene → polybutadiene TiCI₃ + Al(C₂H₅)₃1,4-trans- Al(i-C₄H₉)₃ + VOCI₃ 1,4-cis- Al(i-C₄H₉)₂CI + CoCl₂1,2-isotactic Al(i-C₄H₉)₃ + Cr(PhCN)₆ 1,2-syndiotactic Al(i-C₄H₉)₃ +MoO₂(O-i-C₄H₉)₂ Petrochemistry Catalytic cracking Zeolite,alumina-silica Catalytic reforming Pt/Al₂O₃ or bimetallic Alkylationcatal./Al₂O₃ Isomerization H₂SO₄ or HF Hydrocracking Pt/aluminaHydrofining or hydrotreating Ni/SiO₂—Al₂O₃ or Ni—W/SiO₂—Al₂O₃ orPd/zeolite Co—Mo/Al₂O₃, Ni—W/Al₂O₃

130. Application of the Present Invention

131. These benefits of the present invention can also be utilized in themanufacture of fuels, propellants, chemicals, biochemicals,petrochemicals and polymer. Furthermore, the use of electromagneticenergy and active materials in high surface area form can providebenefits in microbe-based, cell-based, tissue-based, and artificialimplant-based devices and reaction paths. Finally, the benefits of thisinvention can be applied to gaseous, liquid, solid, superfluid, plasmaor mixed phase reactions. These devices can be enabling to theproduction of improved and novel products. To illustrate, the catalystwith optimization techniques available in the art can enable devices toproduce hydrogen from low cost chemicals, which in turn can be used toprepare hydrogen based engines, alternative fuel vehicles, hybridvehicles, captive power generation and other applications.

132. To illustrate, the teachings contained herein, preferably combinedwith optimization techniques available in the art, can enable affordabledevices to produce hydrogen from low-cost chemicals (such as but notlimiting to methanol, agriculturally derived ethanol, gasoline, naturalgas, gasohol), which in turn can be used to prepare hydrogen basedengines, alternative fuel vehicles, hybrid vehicles, captive powergeneration and other applications. The teachings can assist in reducingthe costs of implementing novel engine-based vehicles and powergeneration equipment since the distribution infrastructure of saidlow-cost chemicals to homes, buildings, and roads already exists.

133. The novel chemical composition transformation method and devices asdescribed can be utilized to degrade undesirable species from a feedinto more preferred form. Illustration include degradation of speciessuch as toluene, methylethyl ketone, ethylene oxide, methylene chloride,formaldehyde, ammonia, methanol, formic acid, volatile organic vapors,odors, toxic agents, biomedical compounds into intermediates or finalproducts such as carbon dioxide and water vapor. In another application,organics in liquid streams may be treated using these devices.Alternatively, novel chemical composition transformation devices asdescribed can be utilized to remove and recover precious and strategicmetals from liquid waste streams; or to remove hazardous metal ions fromwaste streams (waste water). The device can also be used to purify fluidstreams by removing low concentrations of contaminants such as inpreparing extremely pure water or extremely pure gases needed insemiconductor device manufacturing.

134. The invention can be applied to automatically and on-demand cleancontaminants and stained surfaces such as windows in skyscrapers andhotels, and window shields of automobiles and aircraft. Stains are oftenorganic in nature or comprises of substances that change the refractiveindex of a surface. A thin nanostructured coating of transparent ceramicor film (such as but not limiting to indium tin oxide, doped glasses,metals, and ceramics) can be deposited with electrodes printedconnecting said film. The film can be part of an electrical circuit thatis triggered on-demand to catalyze the substance in any stain on surfaceof interest. The invention may also be integrated in air conditioners,heating, and ventilation systems to clean air, or at-source andconveyors of emissions such as carpets, combustion chambers, and ducts.The teachings can also be utilized to build low-cost odor controlsystems inside microwaves, refrigerators, and portable or plug-in typeodor removal devices at homes and offices. Odors are organic chemicalsand preferred method of .treating odors is to transform the chemicalsresponsible for odor into carbon oxide and moisture. The teachingscontained herein can be applied to produced catalytic units thattransform the chemicals responsible for odors into more desiredproducts. Similarly, the teachings can yield devices to address theproblems inside printers and photocopiers and other such office andindustrial equipment that emit gases such as ozone and volatilechemicals.

135. The invention can enable the use of multifunctional equipment. Anillustration of this, without limiting the scope, would be to coat thesurface of a pipe with conducting formulation and then conduct thereaction while the raw material is been transported from source to somedesired destination. The pipe in this case performs more than onefunction-it helps transport the feed and it also enables the reaction tooccur during such transport.

136. The invention can be applied in membrane reactors, ion exchangeunits, catalytic distillation, catalytic separation, analyticalinstruments, and other applications that combine the benefits ofcatalysts with chemical unit operations known in the art.

137. This invention can also be utilized to develop and produce productsthat are based on catalytic or high surface area-based properties ofmaterials used in the product. An illustrative, but not limiting,product of this type would be one that sense, react, trigger, or adaptto changes in environment in general, and in the chemical composition ofa fluid in particular such as the teachings in commonly assigned U.S.patent application Ser. No. 09/074,534 and which is incorporatedherewith. The invention can be generically applied to develop andproduce products that sense, react, trigger, or adapt to changes in theenvironment such as changes in the thermal state, mechanical state,magnetic state, electromagnetic state, ionic state, optical state,photonic state, chromatic state, electronic state, biological state, ornuclear state, or a combination of two or more of these. In all cases,when the teachings contained herein are applied to a device inconjunction with electrical field, the benefit obtained is themodification of surface state of the active material and/or themodification in the property of the active material and/or themodification in the environment, as the said surface interacts with theenvironment.

138. As a non-limiting example, if the active layers are prepared fromthermally sensitive material compositions, rapid response thermalsensors can be produced. In another example, if piezoelectriccompositions are used in the active layer in a multilaminate stack,vibration and acceleration sensors can be produced. In yet anotherexample, magnetic compositions can yield rapid response magnetic sensorsand magnetoresistive sensors. If the active layer instead is preparedfrom compositions that interact with photons, novel chromatic,luminescent, photodetectors and photoelectric devices may be produced.With compositions interacting with nuclear radiation, sensors fordetecting nuclear radiation may be produced. In another example, withbiologically active layers, biomedical sensors may be produced. Withinsulating interlayers, these device may be thermally isolated or madesafe and reliable. The active layers can be mixed, as discussed before,to provide multifunctional devices and products. The sensing layers maybe cut or left intact for specific applications. The sensing layer maybe just one layer or a multitude of as many layers as cost-effectivelydesirable for the application. The electrode may also be one layer or amultitude of as many layers as cost-effective and necessary for theapplication. These sensors have performance characteristics desired inchemical, metallurgical, environmental, geological, petroleum, glass,ceramic, materials, semiconductor, telecommunications, electronics,electrical, automobile, aerospace and biomedical applications. Suchsensors can be combined with metrology techniques and transducers toproduce smart products and products that adapt and learn from theirenvironments.

139. Example 1. Partial Oxidation of Methanol CASE I

140. A mixture of 75% ITO (15.7 m²/g BET surface area) and 25% Al₂O₃(61.7 m²/g surface area) nanoparticles is formed by milling the twopowders together. A slurry is prepared from this high surface areamixture in iso-propanol. An electroded porous (0.2-0.3 mm pores)honeycomb Al₂O₃ structures (3.8 cm×1.3 cm×0.6 cm) is dipped into themixture. The electrodes are made of silver, although other conductiveelectrodes are expected to work as well. The sample is dried at roomtemperature. The catalyst is reduced in a flow through quartz tubereduction system in 5% H2 in Nitrogen at 350° C. After 30 minutes itsresistance drops to about 1000 ohms, with a visible change of color togreen-blue to light blue. The reduced or activated thin film istransferred to the reactor and is exposed to 100 ml/min of Methanol/Airvapor under a small electric field. The results of this experiment aretabulated in the following table. TABLE 8 Voltage Current Temp H₂Conversion (volts) (amps) (° C.) % % MeOH 95 0.15 225 17.5 80%

141. Interestingly, the reaction produced less than 2% carbon monoxide.This example suggests that electrically activated catalysis can producegreater than 10% hydrogen from methanol and air at average substratetemperatures below 300° C. Alternatively, this example suggests thathydrogen can be produced from alcohols such as methanol with lowconcentrations of carbon monoxide.

142. Example 2. Partial Oxidation of Methanol CASE II

143. The feed is preheated in this example by, for example, unitprocesses 103 shown in FIG. 1. The catalyst of Example 1 is treated to60% oxygen/40% nitrogen that is saturated with methanol heated to 40° C.To prevent condensation of methanol, the feed line connecting themethanol tank and the reactor 104 is heated as well. The reaction isinitiated with electrical current and then the current is switched off.Table 9 presents the results observed. TABLE 9 Voltage Current Temp H₂(volts) (amps) (° C.) % (wet) Catalyst 100 0.14 352 23% Blue  0 0  8012% Blue

144. This example suggests that electrically activated catalysts in somereactions remain active even without the current. Hence, this inventionmay be used to activate catalysts in conditions that would not otherwiseresult in similarly activated catalyst. Alternatively, this examplesuggests that hydrogen can be produced from alcohols such as methanolwith negligible input of power.

145. Example 3. Methane Reforming CASE I

146. This example differs from Example 1 in that the feed is methane andwater vapor. Methane (16% CH₄, 84% Nitrogen) is bubbled through warmedwater in unit operations network 103 and this mix is fed into thereactor. The results are presented in Table 10. TABLE 10 Voltage CurrentWater Temp H₂ Catalyst (volts) (amps) (° C.) % gms 85 0.05 65 1.2 0.29

147. This example suggests that electrically activated catalysts is notlimited to methanol oxidation. It has broad impact application.Specially, this example shows that the technology may be used forhydrocarbon reforming.

148. Example 4.Methane Reforming CASE II

149. A honeycomb surface was coated with indium tin oxide usingsputtering process. Palladium acetate was applied to the surface suchthat it yield a continuous layer of palladium. The honeycomb catalystwas placed in a circuit and a voltage drop applied across the catalyst.This passage of current so resulting activated the catalyst. Thisactivated catalyst was externally heated with a heating plate. Methanewas passed over the catalyst along with water vapor and oxygen (as air)in the reactor system of example 1. The products from the reactor wereprimarily hydrogen and carbon dioxide. The observed carbon monoxide asmeasured by gas chromatograph was less than 2%, even though the hydrogenconcentration was greater than 10%. This high hydrogen to carbonmonoxide ratio (greater than 5) is highly unusual as conventionalmethane reforming produces greater than 10% carbon monoxide and thehydrogen to carbon monoxide ratio is less than 5. This examples suggeststhat electrically activated catalysis is useful in hydrocarbon reactionsand that it may be used to produce hydrogen from hydrocarbons, watervapor and oxygen in a single step with low concentrations of carbonmonoxide. The hydrogen so produced could be used, after suitablepost-processing, as feed for fuel cells, merchant hydrogen, chemical andbiochemical reactions, pharmaceutical synthesis, fuels for rockets, andfor instrumentation applications.

150. Example 5.Gas Storage with Electrically Activated Material

151. Gas storage and discharge is often a physisorption or chemisorptionprocess. Gas storage applications exist in many situations-e.g.hydrogen, methane, gas purification, refrigeration cycles, batteriesetc. While the teachings of the present invention can be applied to allgases, the particular example illustrates an embodiment for hydrogenstorage applications.

152. Surface adsorbed and/or chemical hydrides are formed duringhydrogen storage process. This process often requires thermal cycles.This can be provided by applying electromagnetic field and passingelectrical current through the material of interest. This can beaccomplished because most alloys and hydrides offer reasonableelectrically conductivity. The resistance of these materials changeswith extent of hydrogen storage. With a circuit that determines theresistance of the storage bed, the hydrogen loading of a bed can beestimated. Thus this feature can also be used to systematically monitorand control the adsorption or desorption process. The flow of current,can through ohmic heating, change the temperature of the bed and this inturn can affect the discharge rates and extent. Application ofelectromagnetic field in general and the flow of current in particularis simpler, smaller, and more rapid than achieving temperature profilethrough the use of an external furnace. Such a technique can be usefulfor the storage of any gas. It is also anticipated that this process canbe used to separate isotopes and processes that benefit from adsorptionand/or desorption phenomena over surfaces.

153. Some specific illustrations of hydrogen storage materials includeMg 80%+LaNi₅ 20% amorphous/nanostructured composite materials, Mg-Ni-Ce,ZrNi-Mg₂Ni, TiMn_(1.5), TiMn₂ based amorphous andamorphous/nanostructured composite materials, fullerenes, and La₂Mg₁₇(66.6 wt %)+LaNi₅ (33.3 wt. %) . Pd, Pt, Ni, and V are potentialadditives for this application.

154. Reactor Variations

155. The reactor network 104 may be implemented using a continuousstirred-tank reactor (CSTR), plug-flow reactor (PFR), batch or any otherform of reactor design. Process control and automation may be added toimprove the process. The process control may be proportional (P),proportional-integral (PI), proportional integral derivative (PID),proportional-derivative (PD) or any other type. The reactor may comprisesolid walls formed of a non-reactive material including ceramics,metals, polymers and the like selected to meet the chemical, mechanicaland electrical needs of a particular application.

156. Alternatively, a membrane 501 replaces some or all of the reactorwalls of the reactor 104 containing the electrically activated catalystas shown schematically in FIG. 5A and FIG. 5B. The membrane can befunctionally gradient type integrated into the reactor wall as shown inFIG. 5B, or simple layer type shown in FIG. 5A. Some of the products(e.g., Products 1 in FIG. 5A and FIG. 5B) that are formed in thevicinity of electrically activated catalyst 101 diffuse through membrane501. The passage through membrane 501 enriches certain desiredcomponents within in the reactor 502 outside of the membrane 501.

157.FIG. 6A and FIG. 6B show an optional embodiment in which anelectrically activated catalyst 601 is incorporated into a plug-in typedevice. As shown in FIG. 6A, catalyst 101 is on affixed to a supportingsubstrate 603 by lamination, adhesives, surface tension or other means.Catalyst 101 may be provided as a decal applied to substrate 603, or maybe applied to substrate 101 by screen printing, evaporation, sputtering,or other thin or thick film techniques.

158. The device of FIG. 6A and FIG. 6B can be plugged into anyelectrical outlet such as conventional 110 or 220 volt AC mains power,or 12 volt DC power available in vehicles. Electromagnetic field iscoupled to catalyst 601 by electrodes 602. In the specific embodiment,electrodes 602 pass through holes or plated vias through substrate 603.However, it is contemplated that printed conductors using printedcircuit board and or ceramic module techniques may be readily applied toprovide other electrical conduction configurations.

159. Alternatively, electronic and electrical circuit is incorporated toconvert the electrical outlet voltage and current into more desirablemagnitude or frequency of voltage and current for the device. Further,an electromagnetic field may be induced in catalyst 601 using, forexample, radiating coils or antenna structures formed on one side ofsubstrate 603 that produce electromagnetic field that penetrate tocatalyst 601. Such a configuration, not shown, isolates exposed surfacesfrom electrical potentials to improve safety and convenience.

160. Preferably, a ventilated cover 604 is provided to mechanicallyprotect the catalyst 601 while allowing environmental atmosphere toreach the surface of catalyst 601. Sensor(s) or timers or both may beadded to improve functionality of the device. A sensor, for example, maybe used to indicate the need to replace the device.

161. In operation, a polluted gas stream (e.g. air) diffuses into thecover, is catalytically remediated, and the benign products diffuse awayfrom catalyst and through the cover. This device can destroy harmfulgases, odor, biospecies, pathogens, etc.

162.FIG. 7A and FIG. 7B illustrate an example configuration illustratinga manner in which the process components may be integrated. The processintegration requires less equipment, has lower capital and operatingcosts, and is therefore preferable in some cases. However, sometimes,integrated process require better process monitoring and controls.

163.FIG. 7A is largely analogous to the process configuration shown inFIG. 1 where heat exchanges 703 and 705 are specific instances of unitoperation networks 103 and 105 in FIG. 1. Functionally, heat exchangers703 and 705 serve to add/remove heat from the feed stream and productstream, respectively. Heat exchanges are preferably implemented in amanner that provides acceptable flow without otherwise interfering withor impeding the feed stream and/or product stream. Heat exchanges 703may comprise electrical or fuel powered heating elements, or obtain heatenergy by other available heat source.

164.FIG. 7B shows an integrated configuration in which heat removed fromthe product stream is exchanged into the feed stream to provide energyefficient operation. A feed composition is preheated by heat exchanger705 and passed to an electrically activated reactor 704 in accordancewith the present invention. Electrically activated reactor 704 includesthe catalyst 101 that while electrically activated, transforms the feedcomposition into the product composition. The heated product compositionis passed to heat exchanger 705 for heat removal. Heat exchanger 705 inFIG. 7B is configured to isolate the feed stream from the productstream.

165.FIG. 8 presents an example in which the electrically activatedreactor 804 is part of a reactor network 801. The first reactor 803comprises a combustion reactor whose products enter the electricallyactivated catalyst reactor 804. The products from the catalyst reactor804 then enter into another reactor 805 where the products are furtherreacted. The specificity of electrically activated catalyst reactor 804enables a high degree of functional control over the products producedat each stage. For example, as described above the reaction environmentof electrically activated reactor 804 can be carefully controlled toavoid secondary reactions that may produce uncontrolled or undesiredreactions in downstream reactor 805. While the example of FIG. 8illustrates only three reactors in series, a smaller or larger number ofreactors can be used in series or parallel to produce desiredsubstances.

166.FIG. 9 illustrates one of the many embodiments of processes that canbe designed around electrically activated catalysis. The reactor networkof FIG. 9 is useful for the production of hydrogen from a feed streamcomprising a hydrogen containing compound or compounds. Hydrogenationunit 903 receives the feed stream and preferably receives a portion ofthe hydrogen product. Hydrogenation unit 903 functions to combine freehydrogen with the feed composition to pre-treat unsaturated hydrocarboncompounds in the feed composition. The zinc oxide bed 913 provides acatalyst bed to promote the hydrogenation process. The products of thehydrogenation process are passed directly or after thermal repositioningby heat exchanger 923 to electrically activated catalyst (EC) reformingunit 904.

167. Reforming unit 904 performs a reaction such as described in example3 and example 4 set out above to convert a hydrogen containing compound,such as methane, into hydrogen and byproducts such as carbon dioxide.Steam regenerator 906 supplies water vapor, which may be a byproduct ofhydrogen enricher 905. The converted product is passed, optionallythrough heat exchanger 915 to post-processing unit 905 that performshydrogen enriching by removing water vapor and or other components ofthe converted product stream. Heat exchanger 915 operates to remove heatfrom the hydrogen stream generated by hydrogen enricher 905. Theenriched hydrogen from the enricher can be sent into components such asfuel cell stack subsystem. The fuel processing subsystem in combinationwith fuel cell stack subsystem and power conditioning subsystem can beutilized for electricity generation applications.

168. While the examples herein do not show process control, processcontrol mechanisms and techniques are widely known and applicable to themechanisms shown in FIG. 9 to meet the needs of a particularapplication. For example temperature, pressure, flow rate, composition,voltage, current indicators or controllers may be added before, with,and after the electrically activated catalysis. This process begins withnatural gas to produce hydrogen for fuel cells.

169. Although the invention has been described and illustrated with acertain degree of particularity, it is understood that the presentdisclosure has been made only by way of example, and that numerouschanges in the combination and arrangement of parts can be resorted toby those skilled in the art without departing from the spirit and scopeof the invention, as hereinafter claimed. Other embodiments of theinvention will be apparent to those skilled in the art from aconsideration of the specification or practice of the inventiondisclosed herein. It is intended that the specification and examples beconsidered as exemplary only, with the true scope and spirit of theinvention being indicated by the following claims.

We claim:
 1. A method of manufacturing a product, the method comprisingthe acts of: pre-treating a feed composition to alter the chemical,electrical, thermal or mechanical state of the feed composition; passingthe pretreated feed over an electrically activated catalyst to transformthe pre-treated feed composition; and post-treating the transformedcomposition to alter the chemical, electrical, thermal or mechanicalstate of the transformed composition to produce the said product.
 2. Themethod of claim 1 , wherein the product comprises hydrogen.
 3. Themethod of claim 1 , wherein the catalyst comprises one or morenanopowders.
 4. The method of claim 1 wherein the active sites of thecatalyst are at a higher temperature than the bulk reactor environmenttemperature.
 5. The method of claim 4 , wherein the bulk reactorenvironment temperature is less than about 300° C.
 6. The method ofclaim 1 , wherein the pre-treatment comprises a process selected fromthe group consisting of: heating, cooling, mixing, milling, compression,expansion, distillation, separation, extraction, dissolution,crystallization, scrubbing, oxidation, reduction, combustion, andspraying.
 7. The method of claim 1 , wherein the post-treatmentcomprises a process selected from the group consisting of: heating,cooling, mixing, milling, compression, expansion, distillation,separation, extraction, dissolution, crystallization, scrubbing,oxidation, reduction, combustion, and spraying.
 8. A system forperforming catalytic reactions comprising: a pre-treatment subsystemreceiving a feed composition and operable to alter a chemical,electrical, thermal or mechanical state of the feed to yield apre-treated feed composition; an electrically activated catalyst totransform the pre-treated feed composition into a transformedcomposition; and a post-treatment subsystem receiving the transformedfeed composition and operable to alter a chemical, electrical, thermalor mechanical state of the transformed composition to produce thecatalyzed product.
 9. The system of claim 8 wherein the electricallyactivated catalyst comprises: a power supply; a catalyst having anactive area; electrodes coupling electromagnetic energy from the powersupply to the catalyst such a that current flows through the active areaof the catalyst.
 10. The system of claim 8 wherein the electricallyactivated catalyst comprises a catalyst having one or more nanopowders.11. The system of claim 8 wherein pre-treatment subsystem comprisesprocessing units selected from the group consisting of: heaters,coolers, mixers, millers, compressors, decompressors, distillers,separators, extractors, dissolution mechanisms, crystallizers,scrubbers, oxidation reactors, reduction reactors, combustion reactors,and sprayers.
 12. The system of claim 8 wherein post-treatment subsystemcomprises processing units selected from the group consisting of:heaters, coolers, mixers, millers, compressors, decompressors,distillers, separators, extractors, dissolution mechanisms,crystallizers, scrubbers, oxidation reactors, reduction reactors,combustion reactors, and sprayers.
 13. A method of modifying theperformance of a composite substance, the method comprising the acts of:preparing at least two component substances in a nanomaterial form;placing one nanomaterial component in proximity with anothernanomaterial component such that the component substances shareinterfacial areas as they form the composite substance; and inducing anelectromagnetic field inside the composite substance.
 14. The method ofclaim 13 where the modified performance is the catalytic performance.15. The method of claim 13 wherein the act of inducing further comprisesapplication of external electromagnetic field.
 16. The method of claim13 wherein performance of the composite substance is modified by morethan 5%.
 17. A method for producing useful product from a raw materialcomprising: forming a catalytic body comprising nanomaterials of atleast two compositions, wherein the two compositions are arranged suchthat over at least some locations the two compositions share domainboundaries; inducing an electromagnetic field across the shared domainboundaries; exposing the raw material to the catalytic body to cause atransformation of the raw material into useful product.
 18. The methodof claim 17 wherein at least one of the compositions is a metal.
 19. Themethod of claim 17 wherein the catalytic body behaves like a catalystfrom the group consisting of platinum, palladium, rhodium, osmium,ruthenium, iridium.
 20. A method for preparing a catalyst comprising:forming a catalytic body comprising nanostructured particles havingactive sites; exposing a raw material to the catalytic body; inducingthermal runaway in the active sites by application of an electromagneticfield during exposure of the raw material; and quenching the thermalrunaway.
 21. The method of claim 20 wherein the raw material leads to anexothermic reaction that contributes to the thermal runaway.
 22. Themethod of claim 20 further comprising controllably altering the appliedelectromagnetic field to modify the induced thermal runaway state.